Lecture Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Non-living fluid matrix of blood.
A
Plasma
2
Q
3 Formed Elements of Blood
A
Platelets, Erythrocytes, Leukocytes
3
Q
Red Blood Cells are Called:
A
Erythrocytes
4
Q
White Blood Cells are called:
A
Leukocytes
5
Q
3 Layers of Blood when spun in a centrifuge
A
Plasma, Buffy Coat (WBC/Platelets), Erythrocytes
6
Q
Plasma should make up how much of a hematocrit?
A
55%
7
Q
Erythrocytes should make up how much of a hematocrit?
A
45%
8
Q
How do you figure out how much of an element in a hematocrit?
A
Column of element/column of whole tube multiplied by 100
9
Q
Function of Leukocytes
A
Protect body from bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins, and tumor cells.
10
Q
Diapedisis
A
The way that WBC’s leave the capillaries towards infection using ameboid motion and positive chemotaxis
11
Q
Leukocytosis
A
Increased production of WBC’s, normal response to infection.
12
Q
3 Granulocytes
A
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
13
Q
2 Agranulocytes
A
Lymphocytes, Monocytes
14
Q
Most common Leukocytes to Least Common
A
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils
15
Q
Characteristics of Granulocytes
A
Cytoplasmic granules, shorter lived that RBC’s, Lobed nuclei, all phagocytic.
16
Q
Characteristics of Neutrophils
A
Most abundant, 3-6 lobes in nucleus, Larger than RBC’s, contain defensins, phagocytize bacteria
17
Q
Characteristics of Eosinophils
A
Bi-lobed nucleus, Red granules, Larger than RBC’s, Defend against parasitic worms, Role in allergies and asthma
18
Q
Characteristics of Basophils
A
Deep Purple nucleus, Larger than RBC’s, Least abundant, contain histamine
19
Q
Histamine
A
Inflammatory chemical that dilates blood vessels to attract WBC’s to site of infection.
20
Q
Characteristics of Lymphocytes
A
Deep purple, circular nuclei, Mostly in lymphoid tissue, Mount immune response
21
Q
Characteristics of Monocytes
A
Kidney shaped nuclei, very large.
22
Q
Function of Monocytes
A
Differentiate into microphages and enter tissues, actively phagocytic, activate lymphocytes to mount immune response.
23
Q
Leukopoiesis
A
Production of WBC’s.
24
Q
Leukopoiesis is stimulated by:
A
Interleukins and Colony Stimulating Factors
25
All leukocytes originate from:
Hemocytoblasts
26
Where are the chemical messengers found that stimulate Leukopoiesis?
Red Bone Marrow and Mature WBC's
27
Leukopenia
Abnormally low WBC count.
28
What causes Leukopenia?
Glucocorticoids or anti-cancer drugs
29
What is Leukemia?
The Cancerous overproduction of abnormal WBC's. Fill red bone marrow .
30
Myeloid Leukemia
Myoblast decendents (granulocytes)
31
Lymphocytic Leukemia
Involves lymphocytes
32
Acute Leukemia
Derives from Stem Cells
33
Chronic Leukemia
Derives from later cell stages.
34
Infectious Mononucleosis
Excessive numbers of atypical a granulocytes. Caused by Epstein Barr Virus
35
Symptoms of Infectious Mononucleosis
Tired, achy, sore throat, low fever
36
How do you treat infectious mononucleosis
Runs course with rest
37
Sickle Cell Anemia
Red Blood Cells are sickle shaped, not round. Rupture easily and block small vessels.
38
Pernicious Anemia
Large and Odd Shaped RBC's
39
Whole Blood Transfusions
Used when blood loss is rapid and substantial (>30%).
40
Packed Red Cell Transfusions
Transfused in other cases, restore Oxygen carrying capacity.
41
Loss of ______ or more blood can be fatal.
30%
42
Transfusions of incompatible blood can be _________.
Fatal
43
Antigens (Agglutinogens)
Generate Immune Response
44
Antibodies (Agglutinins)
Pre-formed Anti-A or Anti-B antibodies
45
Type A blood would have:
Antigens: A Antibodies: Anti-B
46
Type B blood would have:
Antigens: B Antibodies: Anti-A
47
Type AB blood would have:
Antigens: A and B Antibodies: None
48
Type O blood would have:
Antigens: None Antibodies: Anti-A and Anti-B
49
Which type of blood is a universal donor?
Type O
50
Which type of blood is a universal receiver?
Type AB
51
Agglutinated
Clumped together
52
If someone's blood type is O negative, what antigen are they missing?
RH antigen
53
How many times does someone who is RH- have to be transfused with RH+ blood to get a reaction.
The second time there is a reaction.
54
Someone will only produce RH antibodies if:
A mom is carrying an RH+ baby, and individual who is RH- receives RH+ blood.
55
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
When an RH- mom is carrying an RH+ baby, the second time the baby may become anemic or hypoxic.
56
RhoGRAM Serum
Contains artificial RH antibodies so that the mother of a baby doesn't produce RH antibodies and attacks the fetus.
57
Results of Transfusion Reactions
Diminished O carrying capacity, Diminished blood flow beyond blocked vessels, Ruptured cells release hemoglobin and cause kidney failure.
58
Treatment for transfusion reactions
Fluids and diuretics to wash out hemoglobin.
59
Low Blood Volume can cause_____ and_____.
Shock and Death
60
3 Functions of Blood:
Distribution, Regulation, Protection
61
Blood Distribution:
Distributes O, Nutrients, Hormones. Removes metabolic waste.
62
Blood Regulation:
Maintains body temperature, pH, Fluid volume
63
Lower blood pH than normal:
Acidosis
64
Higher blood pH than normal:
Alkalosis
65
Blood Protection:
Provides Leukocytes
66
Plasma
Non-living fluid matrix of blood
67
Blood Plasma Characteristics
90% Water, Least heavy layer and the most abundant, Solutes
68
Solutes of Blood Plasma
Electrolytes and Plasma Proteins (albumin)
69
Albumin
Regulates osmotic pressure
70
Function of Erythrocytes
Respiratory gas transport
71
Hemoglobin
Binds reversibly with Oxygen
72
Characteristics of Erythrocytes
Small, biconcave, high hemoglobin content, no mitochondria, aneucleate
73
Globin
Composed of 4 polypeptide chains
74
Heme
Pigment bonded to each globin chain. Iron atom binds with 1 Oxygen atom.
75
How many O atoms can each Hb (Hemoglobin) molecule bind to?
4
76
Oxyhemoglobin
Produced by O2 loading into lungs. Ruby red in color.
77
Deoxyhemoglobin
Produced by O2 unloading in tissues. Dark red in color.
78
Carbaminohemoglobin
Produced when CO2 loads in tissues. 20% of CO2 in blood binds to Hb.
79
Hematopoiesis
Production of blood cells
80
Blood cell formation occurs where?
Red bone marrow
81
Erythropoesis
Production of Red Blood Cells
82
All blood cells arise from a ____________.
Hemocytoblast
83
Hormones and growth factors influence ___________ to turn into erythrocytes.
Myeloid Stem Cells
84
Balance of RBC production and destruction depends on:
Hormonal Controls and Dietary requirements
85
Too few RBC's leads to_______
Tissue Hypoxia
86
Too many RBC's leads to ________
Blood viscosity
87
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Glycoprotein hormone in kidneys that stimulates RBC production.
88
EPO production is increased by ______.
Hypoxia
89
EPO is increased by hypoxia due to:
Decreased RBC's, Insufficient Hemoglobin, Reduced O availability
90
Dietary Requirements for Erythropoesis
Nutrients and structural materials, Iron, B complex vitamins
91
What element is necessary for hemoglobin synthesis?
Iron
92
What type of vitamins are necessary for DNA synthesis?
B complex vitamins (Folic, B12)
93
How long does an RBC live in the bloodstream?
About 100 days
94
What happens to the parts of RBC's that cannot be reused?
Excrete them
95
What part of the RBC must be reused?
Hemoglobin
96
When an RBC is destroyed Heme is taken where?
Fe goes back to the blood stream, the rest is taken to the liver.
97
When an RBC is destroyed Globin is taken where?
It is turned into amino acids
98
Anemia
Bloods Oxygen carrying capacity is too low to support normal metabolism
99
Polycythemia
Abnormal excess of erythrocytes
100
Symptoms of Anemia
Fatigue, pallor, shortness of breath, chills
101
Causes of Anemia
Blood loss, Low RBC production, High RBC destruction
102
Acute Hemmorhagic Anemia
Rapid loss of blood quickly
103
Chronic Hemmorhagic Anemia
Slight, but persistent blood loss
104
Iron deficiency anemia
Caused by hemmorhagic anemia, low iron intake or impaired absorption
105
Pernicious Anemia Causes
Autoimmune Disease, Lack of ability to absorb B12 to have cell division.
106
Renal Anemia
Lack of Erythropoeitin
107
Aplastic Anemia
Destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow by chemicals, drugs, radiation or viruses
108
Hemolytic Anemias
Premature RBC lysis
109
Thalassemias
Where one globin chain is absent or faulty
110
Sickle Cell Anemia occurs mostly in what race of people?
Black/African
111
You have a better chance of surviving malaria if you have how many copies of the sickle cell gene?
One
112
If you have one copy of the sickle cell gene you have ________ if you have two copies you have ________.
Sickle Cell Trait, Sickle Cell Anemia
113
Polycythemia Vera
Bone Marrow Cancer
114
Secondary Polycythemia
Less O2 available (high altitude) or EPO production increases.
115
Blood Doping
Artificially induced polycythemia to increase O2 carrying capacity. Used by athletes.
116
Function of Platelets
Clotting Process, Form temporary plug to help seal breaks in vessel walls.
117
Why is blood doping dangerous?
Blood can become too viscous
118
Platelets are made from:
Ruptured cytoplasmic elements of a megakarocyte.
119
What hormone regulates the formation of platelets?
Thrombopoieten
120
Hemostasis
3 reactions that help prevent the loss of blood from breaks in the vessel walls.
121
Hemostasis is _______, ________, and _________
Fast, localized, and highly controlled
122
What coordinates Hemostasis?
Clotting Factors
123
3 Steps to Hemostasis
Vascular Spasm, Platelet Plug Formation, Coagulation of Blood
124
Vascular Spasm
Damaged blood vessel responds to injury by constricting.
125
Vasoconstriction
The constriction of a blood vessel
126
Triggers of a Vascular Spasm
Direct injury to blood vessel wall, Chemicals released by endothelial cells and platelets, Local pain receptor reflexes
127
von Willebrand Factor
Plasma protein that helps platelets stick to collagen fibers.
128
Damage to blood vessel exposes ___________
Collagen fibers
129
Platelets release _________ to make nearby platelets to become spiked and sticky.
Chemical messengers
130
Chemical Messengers that cause platelets to become sticky
Adenosinediphosphate (ADP), Serotonin, Thromboxane A2
131
In coagulation, platelet plug is reinforced with _________.
Fibrin Threads
132
In coagulation blood is formed from ______ to _______.
Liquid to gel
133
3 phases of coagulation:
Prothrombin activator formed, Prothrombin turns into thrombin, Thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen to fibrin
134
Factor __ works to form the prothrombin activator
X
135
Coagulation phase 1
Factor X works to form prothrombin activator
136
Coagulation phase 2
Prothrombin activator catalyzes transformation of prothrombin to thrombin
137
Coagulation phase 3
Thrombin catalyzes the transformation of fibrinogen to fibrin.
138
Fibrinogen is _________ while fibrin is ________
soluble, insoluble
139
Thrombin also activates factor _________ or __________.
Factor XIII, Fibrin stabilizing factor
140
Clot retraction
Platelets contract, drawing edges of ruptured blood vessels together.
141
Vessel Healing
Stimulates cells of vessel walls to divide
142
Platelets release __________ for vessel healing
Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)
143
Endothelial cells release ________ for vessel healing
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)
144
Fibrinolysis
Removes unneeded clots after healing
145
Plasmin
Fibrin-digesting enzyme
146
Homeostatic Mechanisms limiting clot growth
Removal of clotting factors, Inhibition of activated clotting factors
147
Antithrombin III
Inactivates thrombin
148
Heparin
Enhances Antithrombin III
149
Thromboembolic Disorders
Undesirable clot formation
150
Bleeding Disorders
Unable to clot
151
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Clotting and Bleeding issues
152
Thrombus
Stationary clot that develops and persists in an unbroken vessel
153
Thrombosis
Formation of a blood clot inside a vessel that blocks the flow of blood.
154
Embolus
A Thrombus that is freely floating throughout the body
155
Embolism
Stuck clot
156
4 Anticoagulant Drugs
Aspirin, Heparin, Warfarin, Dabigitran
157
Aspirin
Inhibits Thromboxane A2
158
Warfarin (Coumadin)
Interferes with Vitamin K production of clotting factors
159
Dabigitran
Inhibits thrombin
160
2 Causes of Deficient Clotting
Circulating platelet deficiency, Deficiency of clotting factors
161
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet Deficiency
162
Circulating platelet deficiency can come from ________
Red bone marrow destruction
163
Deficiency of Clotting factors can come from________
Impaired liver function, Vitamin K deficiency, Hepititis or Cirrohsis
164
Hemophilia
A genetic disease, Factor VIII, Minor tissue trauma causes prolonged bleeding
165
Hemophilia ____ is the most common type
A
166
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Clotting in intact blood vessels, severe bleeding because residual blood unable to clot.
167
DIC can happen because of
Pregnancy issues, Septicemia, Incompatible Blood Transfusions
168
Coordinated Heartbeat is a function of _____ and _____
Gap junctions, Intrinsic conduction system
169
Cardiac Pacemaker Cells
Noncontractile cells with unstable resting membrane potential
170
Cardiac Pacemaker Cells do two things:
Drift toward depolarization, Trigger rhythmic contractions through action potentials
171
3 parts of Action Potential
Pacemaker Potential, Depolarization, Repolarization
172
Electrical Impulse of the Heart Passes in this order:
SA node, AV note, Bundles of His, Purkinje Fibers (Subendocardial Conducting Network)
173
Sino Atrial Node
Drives Heart Rate, Generates the impulse.
174
Atrioventricular Node
Impulse Pauses here
175
Atrioventricular Bundle
Connects Atria to the Ventricles
176
Bundle Branches
Conduct impulses through the inter ventricular septum
177
Subendocardial Conducting Network
Depolarizes contractile cells of both ventricles
178
SA node has ______ bpm
75
179
AV node has ______ bpm
50
180
AV bundle and Purkinje Fibers have _____ bpm
30
181
Arrythmias
Irregular Heart Rhythms
182
Fibrillation
Rapid, irregular contractions
183
Defibrillation
Resetting the electrical activity of the heart
184
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Electrical System of the Heart
Arrhythmias, Fibrillation, Uncoordinated atrial and ventricular contractions
185
Ectopic Focus
Abnormal pacemaker caused by defects with SA node. AV node sets a junctional rhythm (45-60bpm)
186
Extrasystole
Premature contraction. Can be caused by nicotine or caffeine
187
Heart Block
Few or no impulses reach ventricles because of defective AV node. Too slow for life, need artificial pacemaker to treat.
188
Extrinsic Innervation of the Heart:
Heartbeat modified by ANS via cardiac centers in the brainstem.
189
Cardioacceleratory Center
Sympathetic, accelerates via AV, SA nodes, heart muscle and coronary arteries.
190
Cardioinhibitory Center
Parasympathetic, inhibits via AV, SA nodes
191
ECG
Electrocardiogram, composite of all action potentials generated by nodal and contractile cells of the heart
192
3 deflections of an ECG
P wave, QRS Complex, T wave
193
P Wave
Movement of depolarization wave from SA node through atria.
194
QRS complex
Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization
195
T wave
Ventricular repolarization
196
P-R interval
Beginning of atrial excitation to beginning of ventricular excitation
197
S-T segment
Entire ventricular myocardium depolarized
198
Q-T interval
Beginning of ventricular depolarization through ventricular repolarization
199
Junctional Rhythm
SA node is non-functional, P waves are absent. AV node paces heart between 45-60 bpm
200
Second Degree Heart Block
More P than QRS waves are seen. P waves repeat themselves.
201
Ventricular Fibrillation
Chaotic and irregular ECG
202
Right side of the heart picks up what kind of blood from where?
Deoxygenated from the tissues
203
Pulmonary Circuit
Blood pumped into the lungs to receive O2
204
Left side of the heart picks up what kind of blood from where?
Oxygenated from the lungs
205
Systemic Circuit
Blood pumped to the tissues from the lungs.
206
The heart is located in which part of the thoracic cavity?
Mediastinum
207
Base of the heart leans where?
Toward the right shoulder
208
Apex of the heart points where?
Left hip
209
Pericardium
Double Walled sac enclosing heart
210
Fibrous Pericardium
The superficial layer of the pericardium
211
Parietal Serous Pericardium
Lines internal surface of fibrous pericardium
212
Visceral Serous Pericardium (epicardium)
On the external surface of the heart
213
Myocardium
Spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells, Connective tissue of cardiac skeleton
214
Endocardium
Continuous with endothelial lining of blood vessels
215
Atria
Superior chambers, receiving chambers
216
Ventricles
Inferior Chambers, Discharging chambers
217
Interatrial Septum
Separates atria
218
Interventricular Septum
Separates ventricles
219
Valves of the heart
Ensure uni-directional flow of blood, Open and close in response to pressure changes
220
Tricuspid Valve
Right atrioventricular valve
221
Bicuspid (mitrial) Valve
Left atrioventricular valve
222
Chordae Tendinae
Collagenous chords anchor cusps of valves to papillary muscles on ventricle walls
223
AV Valves open when ________ pressure is greater than ________ pressure
Atrial, Ventricular
224
AV valves close when _________ pressure is greater than _______ pressure.
Ventricular, Atrial
225
Semilunar valves
Prevent back flow of blood into ventricles
226
Incompetent Valve
Blood back flows and heart repumps same blood over and over.
227
Valvular Stenosis
Stiff flaps of valves constrict opening heart exerts more force to pump blood.
228
Coronary Circulation
Functional blood supply to heart itself
229
Blood is delivered to the coronary circulation when:
The heart is relaxed
230
The ________ receives the most blood supply
Left Ventricle
231
Arteries arise from the ________
Aorta
232
Cardiac Veins
Collect blood from capillary beds
233
Angina Pectoris
Chest pain caused by deficiency in blood delivery to myocardium, cells weakened.
234
Myocardial Infarction
Heart Attack, Prolonged coronary blockage, Areas of cell death repaired with non contractile scar tissue
235
Which circuit is short?
Pulmonary Circuit
236
Which circuit is long?
Systemic Circuit
237
Pulmonary circuit has ______ pressure.
Low
238
Systemic Circuit has _________ friction.
High
239
The left ventricle walls are ________ than the right.
3x thicker
240
Cardiac muscles are ________, ________, and have many _______.
Branched, Striated, Mitochondria
241
Sarcolemma
Plasma membrane of a muscle fiber
242
T Tubule
Infolding of the sarcoma that helps in communication with organelles
243
Sarcoplasm
cytoplasm of a muscle cell
244
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Specialized smooth E.R. Stores intracellular calcium
245
Myofilaments
Fibers that slide past each other when muscle contracts
246
Intercalated Disks
Junctions between cardiac cells
247
Desmosomes
Prevent cells from separating during contraction
248
Gap Junctions
Allow ions to pass from cell to cell
249
Functional Syncytium
Coordinated Unit
250
______ and _____ allow the heart to be a functional syncytium.
Desmosomes and gap junctions
251
Automaticity
Self-excitable cells.
252
What kind of cells generate depolarization?
Non-Contractile cells
253
Organ Contraction of the Heart
All contractile cells contract as a unit or none do
254
Long Absolute Refractory Period
Prevents wave summation and tetanus which would stop the pumping action of the heart.
255
Sequence of Events that happen during a Muscle Contraction (Cellular Level)
Na channels open with depolarization, Na enters sarcoplasm, Depolarization of membrane opens other Na channels, Na channels close rapidly, Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca, Ca signals muscle filaments to perform a muscle contraction.
256
3 Phases of Cardiac Muscle Contraction
Depolarization, Plateau, Repolarization
257
What happens during the Depolarization phase?
Na influx, positive feedback opens more Na channels, Channels close.
258
What happens during the Plateau phase?
Slow Ca influx keeps the cell depolarized
259
What happens during the Repolarization phase?
Ca channels close and K channels open repolarizing the cell membrane. This requires ATP and uses the NaK pump.
260
A ligand channel is where?
Around the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
261
How many Na can the NaK pump hold?
3
262
How many K can the NaK pump hold?
2
263
Cardiac muscle has much more _______ than skeletal muscle.
Mitochondria
264
Fuel Sources for Cardiac Muscle
Glucose, fatty acid, lactic acid
265
The heart has a great dependence on __________ respiration.
Aerobic
266
The heart has little ________ respiration ability.
Anaerobic
267
Two Sounds Associated with the Heart:
Lub and Dup
268
What happens during the Lub sound in the heart?
AV valves close, beginning of systole
269
What happens during the Dup sound in the heart?
SL valves close, beginning of ventricular diastole
270
What happens between the Lub and Dup sounds?
There is a pause where the heart relaxes.
271
Heart Murmur
Abnormal heart sounds, usually indicates incompetent or stenotic valve
272
Cardiac Cycle
All events associated with the blood flow during one complete heartbeat.
273
3 phases of the cardiac cycle
Ventricular filling, Ventricular Systole, Isometric relaxation
274
What happens during phase 1 of the cardiac cycle?
Ventricular Filling: AV valves open, Blood passively flows into low pressure ventricles. Atrial systole leads to end diastolic volume.
275
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
Max volume of blood that ventricles will contain during the cardiac cycle
276
What happens during phase 2 of the cardiac cycle?
Ventricular Systole: Atria relax, ventricles contract, rise in ventricular pressure leads to AV valves closing, Ejection phase: ventricular pressure greater than that of arteries, SL valves open, leads to end systolic volume.
277
Ejection Phase
Ventricular pressure is greater than that of large arteries, so SL valves open.
278
End Systolic Volume (ESV)
Amount of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole.
279
Isovolumetric Contraction Phase
When all valves are closed
280
What happens during phase 3 of the cardiac cycle?
Isometric Relaxation: Ventricles relax, atria filling, Backflow of blood closes SL valves, When atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure, AV valves open.
281
Dicrotic notch
Brief rise in aortic pressure from blood bouncing off closed valve.
282
Cardiac Output
Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute.
283
The equation for cardiac output
CO=HRxSV
284
Heart Rate
Number of beats per minute
285
Stroke Volume
Volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle in each beat.
286
Cardiac Output is measured in:
Milliliters per minute
287
Cardiac Reserve
Difference between maximal and resting CO. Dependent on cardiovascular health, highly variable among individuals
288
Equation to find Stroke Volume
SV=EDV-ESV
289
EDV is affected by:
Length of ventricular diastole, venous pressure
290
ESV is affected by:
Arterial BP, force of ventricular contraction
291
3 main factors that affect Stroke Volume
Preload, Contractility, Afterload
292
Preload
Degree of stretch of cardiac muscle before they contract.
293
Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
Stroke volume of blood stretches fibers in the heart and makes cardiac muscle contract more forcefully.
294
At rest muscles are ______ than optimal length.
Shorter
295
Venous return
Amount of blood returning to the heart
296
Most important factor stretching cardiac muscle is:
Venous Return
297
Venous Return is increased by:
Slow Heartbeat, Exercise
298
Increased Venous Return ______ ventricles and ______ contraction force
Stretches, Increases
299
Contractility
Contractile strength at given muscle length
300
Increased Contractility is because of these two factors:
Sympathetic Stimulation, Positive inotropic agents
301
Positive Inotropic Agents
Epinephrine, High extracellular Ca, Thyroxine
302
Negative Inotropic Agents
Acidocis, Increased extracellular K, Ca channel blockers
303
Decreased Contractility is because of one factor:
Negative Inotropic Agents
304
Afterload
Pressure ventricles must overcome to eject blood.
305
Hypertension
High Blood Pressure
306
Hypertension increases _________, resulting in increased ________ and decreased ________.
Afterload, ESV, SV
307
Positive Chronotropic Factors
Increase Heart Rate
308
Negative Chronotropic Factors
Decrease Heart Rate
309
When blood volume drops and heart is weakened, how does this affect the SV, CO, and HR?
SV drops, CO is maintained by increasing HR.
310
Sympathetic Nervous System
Nervous system activated by physical or emotional stressors.
311
Norepinephrine
Causes pacemaker to fire more rapidly, increases contractility, faster relaxation
312
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Opposes sympathetic nervous system, recovery.
313
Acetylcholine
Hyper-polarizes pacemaker cells by opening K channels.
314
Vagal Tone
Parasympathetic Nervous System is dominant
315
Chemical Regulation of Heart Rate
Hormones, Ion Concentrations
316
Epinephrine
Increases heart rate and contractility
317
Thyroxine
Increases heart rate and enhances epinephrine
318
Hypocalcemia
Low Calcium, Depresses Heart Rate
319
Hypercalcemia
High Calcium, Increased HR and Contractility
320
Hyperkalemia
High Potassium, Alters electrical activity, Heart block and Cardiac Arrest
321
Hypokalemia
Low Potassium, Feeble heartbeat, Arrythmias
322
Other Factors that influence Heart Rate
Age, Gender, Exercise, Body Temperature
323
HR _______ when body temperature increases
Increases
324
What has the fastest Heart Rate?
Fetus
325
What gender has the faster Heart Rate?
Females
326
Tachycardia
Heart Rate Faster than 100bpm, may lead to fibrillation
327
Bradycardia
Heart rate slower than 60bpm, inadequate blood circulation in non-athletes.
328
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
CO so low that circulation is inadequate to meet tissue needs.
329
What causes Congestive Heart Failure?
Coronary Athersclerosis, Hypertension, Multiple Myocardial infarctions, Dialated Cardiomyopathy
330
Coronary Athersclerosis
Clogged vessels
331
Dialated Cardiomyopathy (DCM)
Ventricles stretch and doesn't allow them to contract efficiently.
332
Pulmonary Congestions
Left Side fails, blood appears in lungs.
333
Peripheral Congestion
Right Side fails, blood pools in body tissues/edema
334
Edema
Blood pooling in body tissues
335
Human heart begins as _____ instead of 4 chambered heart
2 endothelial tubes
336
2 Structures that bypass pulmonary circulation
Foramen Ovale, Ductus Arteriosus
337
Foramen Ovale
Connects the 2 atria, bypass right ventricle to the lungs, becomes fossa ovalis
338
Ductus Arteriosus
Connects Pulmonary Trunk and Aorta, becomes Ligamentum Arteriosum
339
Arteries
Carrying blood away from the heart
340
Capillaries
Contact tissues, give oxygen and nutrients, exchange of materials
341
Veins
Carry blood back towards the heart
342
Tunica Intima
Endothelium lines lumen of all vessels, slick surface reduces friction
343
Tunica Media
Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin, Thicker in arteries, influence bloodflow and pressure
344
Tunica Externa
Thicker in veins, Collagen fibers protect and anchor to surrounding fibers
345
Arterial Vessels from largest to smallest
Elastic Arteries, Muscular Arteries, Arterioles
346
Elastic Arteries
Large, thick-walled arteries closest to the heart, Large lumen=low resistance, low pressure down stream
347
Muscular Arteries
Distal to elastic arteries, Delivery system to organs, Thick tunica media, active in vasoconstriction
348
Arterioles
Smalles arteries, Control flow into capillary beds
349
Flow of blood through the arterial system
Heart, Elastic Arteries, Muscular Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries
350
Capillaries
Microscopic Vessels, Walls are tunica intima only, Exchange of gasses, nutrients, waste between blood and interstitial fluid.
351
Capillaries from Most to Least Permeable
Sinusoid, Fenestrated, Continuous
352
Continuous Capillary
Least permeable, most common, found in skin and muscle, Allows fluids and some small solutes
353
Fenestrated Capillary
Large fenestrations, increased permeability, larger particles, in areas of absorption In the kidney, and small intestine.
354
Sinusoid Capillary
Most Permeable, Large intercellular clefts, allow blood cells and large particles. Found in bone marrow, liver, spleen
355
Capillary Beds
Interwoven networks of capillaries that control blood to arterioles and venules.
356
Flow through the capillary bed:
Terminal Arteriole, Meta arteriole, Thoroghfare Channel, Post capillary venule
357
Two types of capillary blood vessels
Vascular Shunt, True Capillaries
358
Vascular Shunt
Directly connects terminal arteriole and Post Capillary Venule
359
True Capillaries
Branch of Meta or Terminal Arterioles
360
Precapillary Sphincters
Regulates blood flow through capillary bed
361
Venules
Formed when capillary beds unite, very porous
362
Veins
Form when venules converge, have thinner walls and larger lumens than arteries, Blood pressure lower than arteries
363
Veins hold ______ % of the blood volume
60%
364
Veins have 2 adaptations that help blood get back to the heart:
Venous Valves, Venous Sinuses
365
Venous Valves
Force blood to flow in an unidirectional manner
366
Venous Sinuses
Like a funnel that force blood in a unidirectional manner
367
Vascular Anastomoses
Interconnection of blood vessels. Alternative channels.
368
What Anastomoses are more common, Arterial or Venous?
Venous
369
Blood Flow
(ml/min) Volume of blood flowing through something in a period of time
370
Blood Pressure
(mm/Hg) Force per unit area exerted on blood vessel wall by blood
371
Resistance
Measure of friction blood encounters with vessel walls, generally in systemic circuit.
372
3 Sources of Resistance
Blood Viscosity, Vessel Length, Vessel Diameter
373
Blood Viscosity
Stickiness, controlled by formed elements
374
We have the most control over what source of resistance?
Vessel Diameter
375
Blood flow is directly proportional to _________
Pressure
376
Blood flow is inversely proportional to ________
Resistance
377
Equation for Flow
F=Pressure/Resistance
378
Arterial Blood Pressure: 2 factors
Elasticity, Volume of blood forced into arteries
379
Systolic Pressure
Pressure exerted into the aorta. Highest pressure 120mm/Hg
380
Diastolic Pressure
Lowest Level of aortic pressure 70-80mm/Hg
381
Pulse Pressure
Difference between Systolic and Diastolic Pressure
382
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
Pressure that propels blood to tissues
383
Equation to find MAP
MAP=Diastolic+(Pulse/3)
384
Capillary Blood Pressure
Low pressure is desirable, High BP would rupture walls, Low Pressure forces filtrate into interstitial spaces
385
Venous Blood Pressure
Changes little during cardiac cycle, Low pressure due to peripheral resistance
386
Factors that Aid Venous Return
Muscular Pump, Respiratory Pump, Sympathetic Vasocontriction
387
Muscular Pump
Skeletal muscles put blood towards the heart and prevent backflow
388
Respiratory Pump
Pressure changes during breathing, pumps blood towards the heart
389
Sympathetic Vasoconstriction
Constrict venous vessels
390
Main Factors influencing blood pressure
Cardiac Output, Peripheral Resistance, Blood Volume
391
Equation for Pressure
P =COxR
392
Two Controls used during short term regulation of blood pressure
Neural and Hormonal Controls
393
Long Term Regulation of blood pressure is usually because of __________
Renal Regulation
394
Neural Control of Blood Pressure Regulation
Cardiovascular Center
395
Cardiovascular Center
Clusters of sympathetic neurons in brain stem oversee changes in CO and diameter
396
2 Parts of the Cardiovascular Center
Cardiac Center, Vasomotor Center
397
Cardiac Center
Cardioacceleratory Center and Cardioinhibitory Center, HR Control
398
Vasomotor Center
Sends steady impulses to control diameter of vessels
399
Reflex Arcs
Alter CO and R
400
Types of Reflex Arcs
Baroreceptor, Chemoreceptor, Higher Brain Centers
401
Baroreceptors
Aortic Arch, measures pressure, found in major neck arteries as well
402
Chemoreceptors
Aortic Arch and major neck arteries, respond to chemical signals, respond to levels of CO2, pH, O2
403
Types of Higher Brain Centers
Cerebral Cortex, Hypothalamus, Medulla Oblongata
404
Short Term Hormonal Controls regulate:
Peripheral Resistance
405
Short Term Neural Controls alter:
Peripheral Resistance and Cardiac Output
406
Epinepherine, Norepinephrine increase
Vasoconstriction
407
Kidneys sense blood pressure and generate this hormone:
Angiotensin II
408
Angiotensin II increases
Vasoconstriction
409
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) increases
Vasoconstriction
410
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) increases
Vasodialation
411
ANP comes from which part of the body
The heart
412
Long Term Controls alter __________ via ______
Blood Volume via Kidneys
413
Direct Renal Mechanism
Alters blood volume independently, if increased BP increased filtration and excretion, and vice versa.
414
Indirect Renal Mechanism
Hormonal Controls, Angiotensin II, increases blood volume to increase BP by retaining salt and reducing urination
415
Tissue Perfusion
Delivery of O2 and nutrients, removal of waste from tissue cells.
416
Velocity of Blood Flow
High Velocity through arterial side, slows at capillaries (proper exchange), picks up through venous system
417
Autoregulation
Automatic adjustment of blood flow to each tissue relative to it's requirements
418
2 Short Term Regulation Strategies
Metabolic Controls, Myogenic Controls
419
Metabolic Controls of Autoregulation
Maintenance of waste, Increases blood flow if build up of waste.
420
Myogenic Controls of Autoregulation
Maintenance of pressure into capillaries. Smooth muscle cells in vessels stretch
421
Long Term Autoregulation
Angiogenesis
422
Angiogenesis
of vessels to region increases and existing vessels enlarge
423
Vasomotion
Slow, intermittent flow through capillaries
424
Gasses and Nutrients diffuse ________________
Down Concentration Gradient
425
Bulk Flow
Fluid leaves capillaries are arterial end, returns to blood at venous end.
426
Direction and Amount of Fluid depend on:
Hydrostatic and Osmotic Pressure
427
Hydrostatic Pressure
Force of fluid against a barrier
428
Osmotic Pressure
Due to non-diffusible solutes, pulls fluid across a boundary
429
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
Comprises all forces acting on capillary bed
430
Equation to find NFP
NFP = (HPc+OPif)-(HPif+OPc)
431
HPc
Hydrostatic Pressure of Capillary, out flow
432
OPif
Osmotic Pressure of Interstitial fluid, out flow
433
HPif
Hydrostatic Pressure of Interstitial Fluid, influx
434
OPc
Osmotic Pressure of Capillary, influx
435
Lymphatic System
Returns fluid that leaks out of the blood vessels
436
Lymph
Fluid in vessels
437
Lymph Nodes
Cleanse Lymph
438
Function of Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
Protect body from pathogens, house phagocytic cells and lymphocytes
439
Lymph flows ________________
One way, towards the heart
440
Lymphatic Vessels from Largest to Smallest
Trunks and Ducts, Collecting Lymphatic Vessels, Lymphatic Capillaries
441
Lymphatic Capillaries
Blind end, absorb fluid, Endothelial cells overlap, Form one way mini valves, Pathogens travel through body
442
Lymphatic Vessels
Pathogens travel through body, return interstitial fluid and leaked plasma protein back into blood. Flows through increasingly larger channels.
443
Lymphatic Collecting Vessels
Similar to veins except thinner walls, more internal valves, Anastomose more frequently
444
Lymphatic Trunks
Formed by union of lymphatic collecting vessels. Deliver lymph into 2 ducts.
445
2 Big lymphatic ducts
Right Lymphatic and Thoracic Duct
446
Lymphatic Ducts
Empties lymph into venous circulation
447
Lymph Transport is propelled by:
Skeletal Muscle, Valves, Respiration Changes, Pulsation of arteries, Contraction of smooth muscle inside lymphatic walls.
448
T Cells (T Lymphocytes)
Manage immune response, attack and destroy infected cells
449
B Cells (B Lymphocytes)
Secrete Antibodies
450
Reticular Connective Tissue:
Houses and provides proliferation of lymphocytes, Surveillance point for lymphocytes and macrophages
451
Lymph Nodes
Clustered along lymphatic vessels, Filter lymph and activate immune system
452
2 functions of lymph nodes
Filter Lymph, Activate immune
453
Lymph Nodes have an external _______________
Fibrous Capsule
454
Cortex of a Lymph Node
Outside portion of the lymph node, contains follicles with germinal centers, Houses T cells
455
Medulla of a Lymph Node
Inside Portion of a Lymph Node
456
Germinal Centers
House B cells, inside the follicles of the cortex
457
Medullary Cords
Extend inward from cortex and contain T and B cells
458
Circulation through Lymph Nodes
Enters afferent vessels, fluid forced into interaction by germinal centers, flows into medulla and out efferent vessels
459
Function of the Spleen
Lymphocyte proliferation, immune surveillance and response, cleanses blood of aged cells and platelets, macrophages remove debris
460
White Pulp of Spleen
Lymphocytes
461
Red Pulp of Spleen
RBC's and everything but lymphocytes
462
Function of Thymus
No follicles and No B cells, T lymphocyte maturation, doesn't directly fight antigens,
463
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)
Housed in mucous membranes throughout the body.
464
Function of MALT
Protects from pathogens.
465
Largest concentrations of MALT
Tonsils, Peyer's Patches, Appendix
466
Tonsils
Form a ring around pharynx, gather and remove pathogens in food or air
467
Palatine Tonsils
Posterior of Oral Cavity
468
Lingual Tonsils
Base of Tongue
469
Pharyngeal Tonsils
Posterior of nasopharynx
470
Tonsil Structure
Follicles w/ Germinal Centers, Epithelium forms crypts and forces interaction of pathogens.
471
2 Clusters of Lymphoid Follicles
Peyer's Patches and Appendix
472
Peyer's Patches
Small Intestine
473
Appendix
Offshoot of large intestine
474
Function of Follicle Clusters
Destroy Bacteria, Generate memory lymphocytes
