Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of structure and how things relate to each other.
Physiology
The study of function
Principle of Complimentarity
What a structure can do depends on its form
Structural Hierarchy
Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organismal.
Functions Necessary for Life
Maintaining Boundaries, Movement, Responsiveness, Digestion, Metabolism, Dispose of Wastes, Reproduction, Growth
Integumentary System
Outer body covering
Cardiovascular System
Transport blood, oxygen and nutrients
Lymphatic System
Immune System, picks up fluid
Respiratory System
Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units to enter the bloodstream.
Urinary System
Eliminates waste
Factors Needed for Survival
Oxygen, Nutrients, Water, Normal Body Temperature, Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure, Proper amount of all factors.
Homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite a changing external environment.
Homeostatic Control Systems
Endocrine and Nervous System
Endocrine System
Hormones
Nervous System
Electrical Impulses
Negative Feedback
Most Common, Variable changes in the opposite direction of the initial change.
Example of Negative Feedback
Body Temperature, Glucose Level
Positive Feedback
Response enhances the effect of the original stimulus.
Example of Positive Feedback
Blood Clotting
Receptor
Detects Change
Control Center
Interprets Change
Effector
Does the work of Maintenance
Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of Homeostasis. Most disease can be in regard to Homeostatic imbalance.
Stimulus
Generates imbalance
Causes of Homeostatic Imbalance
Age, When Negative Feedback Mechanisms are overwhelmed
Biochemistry
Study of chemical composition and reaction of living matter.
Inorganic Compounds
Compounds that don’t contain carbon.
Organic Compounds
Compounds that contain carbon. Larger and have covalent bonds.
Water’s Vitality to Life
High heat capacity, High heat vaporization, Polarizing properties, Reactivity, Cushioning
Water: Organic or Inorganic
Inorganic
T or F: Water is the most abundant inorganic compound in living material.
True
Salts
Ionic compounds that disassociate into their component ions in water.
Electrolytes
Conduct electrical currents in solution.
Acids
Protein donors, Release H+ in solution. Low on the pH scale.
Bases
Protein receivers, take up H+ in solution. High on the pH scale.
Neutralization Reaction
Mixing an acid and a base.
pH
Acid Base concentration. Tenfold increments. 0-14
pH of Blood
7.4
Acidic Liquids
Lemon Juice, Hydrochloric Acid, Wine
Basic Liquids
Bleach, Ammonia, Sodium Hydroxide
Acid-Base Buffers
Release H if pH rises. Bind pH if it falls.
Carbonic Acid Bicarbonate System
Buffer system of blood that prevents acidosis and alkalosis.
Carbonic Acid Bicarbonate System
Types of Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, ATP
Dehydration Synthesis
How organic compounds are synthesized. Monomers bond from the removal of water.
Hydrolosis Reactions
How organic compounds are broken down. Done by inserting water into the bond.
Types of Carbohydrates
Sugars and Starches
Functions of Carbohydrates
Major source of cellular fuel. Structural molecules (RNA)
Monosaccharide
One sugar carbohydrate
Disaccharide
Two sugar carbohydrate
Polysaccharide
Many sugar carbohydrate.
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis Reaction
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Lipids are insoluble in ________ but readily dissolve in __________.
Water, other lipids
Main types of lipids:
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids
Triglycerides are called _________ when solid and _________ when liquid.
Fats, Oils
Triglycerides
Composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule.
Functions of Triglycerides
Energy Storage, Protection, Insulation
Triglyceride
Phospholipids
Glycerol, 2 fatty acids and a phosphorus group. Head and Tail.
Phospholipid Function
Important in cell membrane structure.
Phospholipid
Steroids
Structural and signaling molecules. A lipid.
_____________ is found in cell membranes and is the basis for all steroids formed in the body.
Cholesterol
Type of Steroid
Testosterone
Proteins
Basic structuralized material of the body in addition to many specialized roles in cell function.
_________________ are the monomers of proteins.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are joined by covalent bonds called ________________.
Peptide bonds.
Structural Levels of Proteins
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary.
Primary Structure
A polypeptide chain.
Secondary Structure
Primary chain forms spirals. Can be in a helix or in a sheet.
Tertiary Structure
Secondary structures fold up and form a golbular molecule.
Quaternary Structure
Two or more polypeptide chains with it’s own tertiary structure form a functional protein.
Primary Structure
Alpha Helix (Secondary Structure)
Beta Sheet (Secondary Structure)
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Denaturation
Globular proteins unfold and lose functional 3-D shape. Active sites are destroyed.
Denaturation is caused by:
Decrease in pH or increase in temperature.
Enzymes
Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts. Regulate and increase the speed of biological reactions.
Substrates
What binds to the enzyme to be bonded.
Enzyme Substrate Complex
When the enzymes are substrate are bonded.
Product (enzyme reaction)
What is produced after the substrates leave the enzyme.
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA
DNA Functions
Provides instructions for protein synthesis. Replicates before cell division, ensuring genetic continuity.
DNA is composed of _______________.
Nucleotide Monomers
4 Nitrogenous Bases of DNA
ATCG
A is always paired with __________.
T
C is always paired with _________.
G
DNA is formed in a _______________.
Double Helix
Ribonucleic Acid
RNA
Function of RNA
Carries out the DNA orders for protein synthesis.
Nitrogenous Bases for RNA
AUCG
In RNA A is always paired with ____________.
U
In RNA G is always paired with _____________.
G
RNA is formed in a _____________.
Single strand.
Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP
ATP captures the chemical energy in ____________.
Glucose
Structure of ATP
Adenine containing RNA nucleotide with 2 additional phosphate groups.
Function of ATP
Provide Phosphorylation
Phosphorylation
Terminal phosphates are enzymatically transferred to and energize other molecules.
RNA
DNA
ATP
Phosphorylation
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Energy
Capacity to do work or put matter into motion.
Energy can be ___________, _____________, _____________, or _______________
Electrical, chemical, mechanical, electromagnetic
Kinetic Energy
Energy in motion
Potential Energy
Stored, inactive energy
Elements
Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Have unique physical and chemical properties.
4 Elements that make up 96.1% of body mass are:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Lesser Elements of the Body (9) that make up 3.9% of body mass:
Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfer, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnisium, Iodine, Iron.
Trace elements make up 0.01% of body mass and are part of, or activate _________.
Enzymes
Atoms are composed of _____________.
Subatomic Particles
3 Subatomic Particles
Proton, Neutron, Electron
Protons
Positively charged particles in the nucleus. Make up the atomic number of an element.
Neutron
Neutrally charged particles in the nucleus. Help make up the atomic weight, along with protons.
Electrons
Negatively charged particles in the electron cloud outside of the atom. Help make bonds with other atoms.
Most atoms chemically combine to form ___________ or ________.
Molecules or compounds.
Valence Shell
Outermost electron shell.
Electrons in the valence shell:
Have the greatest potential energy. Are chemically reactive and involved in chemical bonding.
Octet Rule
Rule of 8’s. Most valence shells are filled by 8 electrons.
Chemically Inert Elements
Stable and unreactive with a full valence shell.
Chemically Reactive Elements
Valence shell not full. Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons with other atoms to achieve stability.
Covalent Bonds
Share 2 or more electrons
Ionic Bonds
Transfer of valence shell electrons from one atom to another.
Hydrogen Bonds
Attractive force between an electro positive Hydrogen molecule and an electro negative atom of another element.
Anion
Negatively charged particles. Particles that gain electrons.
Cation
A positively charged particle. An atom that loses electrons.
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Electrons shared equally. Produces equally balanced, non-polar molecules.
Polar Covalent Bonds
Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar molecules.
Chemical Reactions
Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken.
Synthesis Reactions
A+B=AB. Anabolic and Endergonic.
Anabolic
Bond formation within a cell.
Endergonic
Energy is absorbed.
Decomposition Reactions
AB=A+B. Catabolic and Exergonic.
Catabolic
Bond breaking activity within a cell.
Exergonic
Energy is released.
Exchange Reactions
AC+B=AB+C. Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions.
Oxidation Reduction Reactions
Happens when breaking down food for energy. Decomposition of food fuels. Exchange reactions for creating ATP.
Factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions.
Increased temperature, Increased concentration of reactant, Decreased particle size, enzymes
Mixture
Physically intermixed matter, no chemical bonds
Solvent
Greatest amount, dissolving unit
Solute
Lesser amount
Solution
Homogeneous, solute doesn’t settle out. Salt water.
Colloid
Heterogeneous, solute doesn’t settle out. Jello.
Suspension
Heterogeneous, solute settles out, Blood.
Cytoplasm is composed of
Cytosol, Organelles, and Inclusions
Cytosol
Fluid in which cytoplasmic elements are suspended.
Cytosol is what type of mixture?
Colloid
Organelles
Metabolic machienery of the cell.
Inclusions
Chemical substances
Mitochondria
Provide most of the cell’s ATP via aerobic cellular respiration. Requires oxygen.
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Site of synthesis of 2 classes of proteins.
Ribosomes
Free Ribosomes
Synthesize soluble proteins that function in cytosol or other organelles.
Membrane Bound Ribosomes
Form rough ER. Synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes, lysosomes, or exported from cell.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Studded with ribosomes that synthesize secreted proteins and membrane proteins and phospholipids.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Metabolism of lipids, sugars, and steroid hormones. Detoxification of drugs, carcinogens and pesticides.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Modifies, concentrates, and packages protein and lipids from rough ER.
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisomes
Detoxify harmful substances. Neutralize dangerous by-products of cellular metabolism.
Lysosomes
Membranous sacs that contain activated digestive enzymes.
Lysosomes
Endomembrane System
All membrane bound organelles that share movement between them.
Example of Endomembrane System
Rough ER to Golgi Apparatus to Lysosome
Cytoskeleton
Elaborate series of rods and linker proteins throughout cytosol.
Cytoskeleton is made up of these 3 Rods:
Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, Microtubules
Microfilament
Intermediate Filament
Microtubule
The cytoskeleton is involved in:
Cell shape, movement, reproduction, endocytosis, exocytosis, anchoring, distribution or organelles, and movement of vesicles.
Cilia
Move substances across cell surfaces with whiplike extensions.
Flagella
A longer extension that propels the entire cell.
Microvilli
Finger like extensions of plasma membrane. Increase surface area for absorption.
Nucleus
The largest organelle. Genetic library with instructions for cellular proteins. Responds to signals by directing protein synthesis.
Nucleus
3 Extracellular Materials
Body fluid, cellular secretions, extracellular matrix
Body Fluids
Interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Cellular Secretions
intestinal and gastric fluids, saliva, mucus, and serous fluids.
Extracellular Matrix
Mesh of proteins and lipids that hold cells together
Cell
The basic structure and
3 basic parts of human cells:
Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane, Nucleus
Lipid Bilayer
The basic structure of the plasma membrane
Makeup of the Plasma Membrane
Phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol
Phosphate heads are:
Hydrophilic and Lipophobic
Fatty Tails are:
Lipophilic and Hydrophobic
Membrane Proteins
Proteins that coordinate communication with specialized functions.
Integral Membrane Proteins
Inserted into the membrane.
Peripheral Membrane Proteins
Attached to the integral proteins.
Glycocalyx
Carbohydrate rich area at the cell surface. Highly specific biological markers.
Plasma Membrane Structure
Lipid bilayer and membrane proteins in a constantly changing fluid mosaic.
Tight Junctions
Impermeable cell bonds. Prevent fluids and molecules from going between cells. Integral proteins fuse.
Desmosomes
Rivets that anchor cells together. Distributes tension through cellular sheet.
Desmosomes reduce the chance of ___________.
Tearing
Gap Junctions
Proteins form pores and allow molecules to pass through cells.
Connexons
Pores in gap junctions
Gap Junctions are found in ___________.
Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Cells
Desmosomes are found in the ___________
Skin, heart
Tight Junctions are found in the ___________
Urinary and digestive system
Plasma membranes are _________________.
Selectively Permeable
Passive Transport
Don’t require ATP
Active Transport
Requires ATP
In Passive transport the substance moves down the ________________
Concentration gradient
Two types of Passive Transport
Diffusion and Filtration
3 Types of Diffusion
Simple Diffusion, Carrier and Channel, and Osmosis
What allows a molecule to diffuse in the membrane?
Lipid soluble, small enough, and if not, carriers able to carry them through the membrane.
Simple Diffusion
Lipid soluble molecules diffuse directly through the membrane.
Carrier Mediated Diffusion
Transmembrane Integral proteins transport specific polar molecules.
Channel Mediated Diffusion
Transmembrane proteins form aqueous channels.
Leakage Channel
Always open channel
Gated Channel
A channel that opens and closes with electrical signals.
Osmosis
The movement of a solvent (water) across the membrane.
Aquaporins
Channels that move water in and out of the cell.
Osmolarity
Concentration of solute particles in a solution.
Osmotic Pressure
Tendancy of water to move into a cell by osmosis.
Hydrostatic pressure
back pressure of water on membrane.
Tonicity
Ability of a solution to alter cell’s water volume.
Isotonic
Has equal amount of solutes in the extracellular fluid as in the cytosol.
Hypertonic
Has a higher amount of solutes in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol. Cells tend to shrink.
Hypotonic
Has a lower amount of solutes in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol. Cells tend to lyse and break.
What are characteristics of a molecule that require active transport?
Not lipid soluble, Large solute, Move against the gradient, not able to move down gradient
Two types of active transport
Primary and Secondary
Primary Active Transport
Energy from hydrolysis of ATP causes shape change in the transport protein that pumps solutes across membrane.
Sodium Potassium Pump
Needed to maintain Potassium and Sodium levels. 3 Cytoplasmic Na bind to the pump, cause it to change shape, and return 2 K into the cytoplasm.
Secondary Active Transport
Dependent on active transport. Drive glucose up it’s concentration gradient, transported with sodium.
Vesicular Transport
Active transport across membrane in membranous sacs called vesicles.
Exocytosis
Transport out of cell.
Endocytosis
Transport into a cell.
Phagocytosis
Cell membrane extensions engulf solids and bring them into the cell’s interior.
Phagosome
Membrane bound molecule from phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Plasma membrane infolds bringing extracellular fluid and solutes inside.
Pinocytosis
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
Allows for specific endocytosis.
Ligand
A signaling molecule used for receptor mediated endocytosis.
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Resting Membrane Potential
Produced by separation of oppositely charged particles across all membranes.
Voltage of a membrane ranges from _______ to _________.
-50 to -100
______________ establishes RMP
Selective diffusion
_______________ maintains electrochemical potential
Active Transport
______ is the main chemical influence on RMP.
Potassium
T or F: The Sodium Potassium pump helps maintain electrochemical potential.
True
Palytoxin
A toxin found in soft corals that poisons the Na-K pump.
Roles of Cell Adhesion Molecules
Anchor, Assist in Movement, Attrack Leukocytes, Stimulate Synthesis or degradation, Signaling
Roles of Plasma Membrane Receptors
Contact Signaling and Chemical Signaling
Cell Environment Interactions
Cell Adhesion Molecules, Plasma Membrane Receptors, Voltage-gated channel proteins
Interphase
Cell grows and carries out functions. 3 subphases.
Mitotic Phase
Divides into 2 cells. 2 phases.
Mitosis
Nucleus divides
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides.
Contact Inhibition
Too many cells in a space. Cell division stops.
Gene
Segment of DNA with instructions for creating a polypeptide chain.
Transcription
Transfors information of DNA sequence to complementary base sequence of an mRNA molecule.
mRNA
Messenger RNA. Transcript of code from DNA carried to cytoplasm.
Translation
Language of nucleic acid translated to language of protein.
Cell Differentiation
Development of specific and definitive features in cells.
Necrosis
Cell death caused by disease or injury
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death.
Hyperplasia
Increase in number of cells to repair something.
Atrophy
Decrease in size of cells. Loss of stimulation to blame.
Three Pigments that contribute to skin color
Melanin, Carotene, Hemoglobin
Melanin
Produced in the melanocytes in skin. Transferred to keratinocytes to form pigment shields for nuclei. Red-Yello and Brown Black.
Carotene
Yellow to orange pigment obtained from diet.
Hemoglobin
Pinkish hue of fair skin due to oxygenated hemoglobin pigment.
Hair pigments
Melanin and Trichosiderin
Red hair pigment
Trichosiderin
Vellus Hair
Pale, fine body hair.
Terminal Hair
Course long hair of eyebrows and scalp. Can appear around puberty.
Alopecia
Hair thinning after age 40.
True Baldness
Growth cycles of hair are very short and don’t break the skin.
What inhibits the growth of hair?
The accumulation of DHT.
What is a treatment for hair loss
Minoxidil, or Finnesteride.
Functions of the Integumentary System
Protection, Body temp regulation, Cutaneous Sensation, Excretion, Blood Reservoir and metabolic functions.
Chemically protective barriers of skin
Melanin and Skin Secretions
Skin Secretions
Acid mantle, sebum, and defensins
Physical barriers of skin
Strateum Cornum dead cells, Keratin and glycolipids block water.
Biological Barriers of skin
Dendridic cells and macrophages
Insensible Perspiration
When body temperature is normal, perspiration
Sensible perspiration
A cooling mechanism if body temperature rises.
Maintaining homeostasis in cold temperature
Skin blood vessels constrict, skin cools.
Tactile, Meissner’s Corpsicles
Fine touch receptors in the dermal papillae
Lamellar, Pacinian Corpsicles
Deep pressure receptors in the dermis and hypodermis.
Metabolic functions of the skin
Synthesis of Vitamin D, Conversion of carcinogens, activate some hormones.
The dermal vascular supply holds up to _______ of the body’s blood volume.
5%
Risk factors for skin cancer
UV exposure, irritation of skin.
One in ______ Americans develop skin cancer.
5
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Most common, least malignant type of cancer. Stratum basale cells invade the dermis and hypodermis.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Second most common type. Can metastisize. Involves the stratum spinosum. Usually scaly and red.
Melanoma
Cancer of the melanocytes. Most dangerous.
ABCD Rule
Used for spotting melanoma. A-asymmetry, B-border, C-color, D-diameter
Effects of Skin Burns
Denatures proteins and kills cells.
Immediate threat of skin burns
Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
Secondary threat of skin burns
Infection
First Degree Burn
Epidermal damage only. Localized redness and swelling.
Second Degree burn
Epidermal and Upper Dermal Damage, Blisters appear.
Third Degree Burns
Entire thickness of skin involved. May need skin grafts, Not painful because nerve endings are destroyed.
Burns are critical if:
Second degree >25%
Third Degree >10%
Third degree on face, hands, or feet
Treatment of Burns
Removal of burned skin, Antibiotics, Skin grafts, Temporary covering
Layers of the integument
Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis
Epidermal Tissue Makeup
Keritanized stratified squamous epithelial tissue
Keratinocytes
Most abundant, tightly connected, produce karatin
Melanocytes
Produce melanin
Dendridic Cells
Defense Cells
_____ layers in thin skin
4
The 4 layers of thin skin
Stratum basale, Stratum spinosum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum Corneum
_______ layers in thick skin
5
5 Layers of thick skin
Stratum basale, Stratum spinosum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum lucidum, Stratum corneum
Stratum Basale
Actively mitotic single row of cells. Bottom layer of epidermis.
Stratum Spinosum
Several layers of keratinocytes attached by desmosomes
Stratum Granulosum
1-5 layers of deteriorating keratinocytes
Stratum lucidium
Only in thick skin. Thin clear layer of dead keratinocytes
Stratum Corneum
Most superficial layer of skin. Made up of flat, dead keratinocytes.
We shed about __________ cells every minute.
50,000
Dermal tissue makeup
Connective Tissue
The dermis contains _________, _________, and ____________
Nerve fibers, blood vessels, and hair follicles
Papillary Layer
Superficial dermal layer. Loose areolar connective tissue. many blood vessels. Dermal Papillae
Dermal Papillae
Dermal ridges that may contain tactile receptors, make fingerprints. Attach epidermis to dermis
Friction Ridges
Dermal ridges
Reticular Layer
Dense irregular connective tissue. Cause clevage/flexure lines.
Appendages of the Skin
Hair, Nails, Sweat and Sebaceous Glands
Hair Bulb
Extended deep into the hair follicle
Hair Matrix
Actively dividing area
Hair Follicle Receptor
Sensory nerve receptors
Arrector Pilli Muscle
Muscle attached to follicle. Goosebumps.
Nails
Scale-like modifications of the epidermis. Contain hard keratin.
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Ducts connect to pores on the skin. Over the entire body. Are able to regulate body temperature.
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Axillary and anogenital areas. Secrete fatty and oderous substances. Ducts empty into hair glands.
Sebaceous Glands
Secrete oil onto skin. Empty into hair follicles, Everywhere except for palms and soles. Secrete sebum.
