Lecture 9- Remembering and forgetting Flashcards
What are the 3 processes involved in remembering?
Encoding, storage and retrieval
What is encoding?
Registering new information into memory
What is storage?
Storing the newly encoding information in memory
What is retrieval?
Recovery of previously stored information
What is rehearsal?
The transfer from STM to LTM within the Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory
What are the two types of rehearsal?
Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
Who looked at the distinction between the types of rehearsal?
Craik and Lockhart
Who looked at maintenance rehearsal and long term recall?
Glenberg, Smith and Green
What did Glenberg, Smith and Green do?
PP had to recall 4 digit numbers
Between study and digit they had to rehearse a distractor word for some time (2 vs 6 vs 12 seconds)
There were 54 trials and had a different interpolated word was used on every trial
After 54 trials pps were asked to recall the words
What were the results from Glenberg et al?
Higher items recalled when the duration of rehearsal is 18
Who found the levels of processing theory?
Craik and Lockhart
What is the levels of processing theory?
How perpetual and comprehension processes leave behind a memory trace. The deeper an item is processes the better it is retained.
Who looked at the levels of processing theory?
Craik and Tulving
What did Craik and Tulving do?
Presented a list of words
Each word could be associated with one of three types of encoding
What were the 3 encoding conditions in Craik and Tulving?
Structural, phonological and semantic
Who found the transfer appropriate processing theory?
Morris, Bransford and Franks
What is the TAP theory?
Memory performance depending on the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those when memory is tested
What does the level of processing theory assume?
That deep (e.g. semantic) processing is always better than shallow (e.g. structuralO
Why is deeper processing good for learning?
As it emphasises the use of a semantic code
Who did a test of the TAP theory?
Morris et al
What did Morris et al do?
PP performed deep vs shallow orienting tasks
After 32 tasks pps were given a recognition test (either a standard recognition or a rhyming recognition)
What were the results of Morris et al?
Effect in standard test is consistent with level of processing view but it is the opposite result for rhyming test
Semantic processing does not always enhance memory
What is encoding-specificity principle?
The likelihood of retrieval depending on the overlap between cues present at encoding and retrieval
Who looked at the evidence for the encoding specificity principle?
Barclay et al
What did Barclay et al do?
If the cues will be more effective for recalling the word PIANO
What did Barclay et al find?
PPs encoded words with their context
What are contextual cues?
Environmental or situational cues that are associated with the encoding or retrieval of information.
They provide context to help recall
Who distinguished the two types of context?
Hewitt
What are the 2 types of context?
Intrinsic and extrinsic
What is intrinsic?
Features that are integral to the stimulus
What is extrinsic?
Other features present at the time of encoding including one’s own cognitive state
Who looked at context dependent forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
What did Godden and Baddeley do?
Divers learnt lists of words either on land or underwater. Had 4 conditions
What did Godden and Baddeley find?
Higher level of recall when they are in the same conditions that they learnt the lists
What is state dependent recall?
Recall being better if one’s internal state during recall mirrors one’s state during encoding
Who looked at the effects of marijuana on recall?
Eich et al
What did Eich et al find?
High recall in matching state conditions when it is the same when they encoded
Who looked at the benefits of organisation?
Mandler (1967)
What did Mandler do?
PPs asked to organise words on printed cards into different piles and had to come up with 5-7 piles
What did Mandler find?
The group that were told about the test and asked to organise the words and also those who were only asked to organise the words
What is forgetting?
The inability to access memory such as retrieval failure rather than a loss of memory
Who spoke about forgetting?
Tulving and Pearlstone
What did Tulving and Pearlstone say?
We can often recognise things we can’t recall and the cued recall is much better than free recall
When does forgetting least happen?
When there is name and picture recognition
Why do we forget?
The law of disuse and the decay theory
Who found the law of disuse?
Thorndike
What is the law of disuse?
When information is not reinforced through practice or retrieval it becomes difficult to recall over time
How can disuse be mitigated?
Reactivation of the neural connection by strengthening the neural pathways associated with the information
What is the decay theory?
Refers to STM when it is not transferred to the LTM through rehearsal and neurones that encode memories weaken over time
Where is decay active?
In the hippocampus
Who looked at interference?
McGoech and Macdonald
What are the two types of interference?
Proactive and retroactive
What is proactive interference?
Old information interferes with the recall of new information
What is proactive interference caused by?
Causes by competition between the correct response and the incorrect
What is competition?
When the incorrect response is associated with the same stimulus
Who looked at proactive interference?
Jacoby et al
What did Jacoby et al find?
Proactive interference may occur as the correct response is weak or because the incorrect is strong
What is retroactive interference?
When new information interferes with the call of old information
How can retroactive interference occur in 2 ways?
Expenditure of mental effort in retention interval and learning of material is similar to the original learning material
How can repression cause forgetting?
Traumatic and threatening memories can cause lack of access to conscious awareness
Who looked at repression?
Loftus and Davis
What did Loftus and Davis find?
Recovered memories are usually false memories
What is the first language attrition?
It explains why people forget word from their native language after acquiring a second language
How does retrieval interval relate to decay?
If forgetting is due to decay then recall should depend on the length of retention length
What happens if forgetting is due to interference?
Recall should depend on amount of similar learning within the retention interval
What does the decay say about forgetting?
There should be more forgetting after longer retention intervals even though the amount of new information remains constant
What does the interference say about forgetting?
There should be more forgetting after new learning even when the length of retention interval remains constant
Who looked at if forgetting is due to decay or interference?
Jenkins and Dallenbach
What did Jenkins and Dallenbach do?
PPs learned nonsense syllables either before bed or at the beginning of the day.
They were tested either immediately or 1, 2, 4, 8 hours later
What did Jenkins and Dallenbach find?
The number recalled goes down the longer the retention interval particularly when they are awake
Who looked at memory and predictability?
Rubenstein and Aborn
What did Rubenstein and Aborn find?
The more reductant and predictable a piece of prose the easier it is to recall
What is the findings from the Bartlett Approach?
The remembered story was always shorter and more coherent and tended to fit closely with the participant’s own viewpoints
What does the social and cultural influence with the Bartlett approach?
The development of schemas which determines how the material is encoded, stored and recalled
Why are there systematic errors in the Bartlett approach?
Due to the intrusion of the schematic knowledge
