Lecture 9

Question 1

Infancy

trust vs mistrust

Answer 1

Children develop a sense of trust when caregiver provide reliability, care and affection
A lack of this would will lead to mistrust

Question 2

Early childhood

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Answer 2

Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence
Success leads to feelings of autonomy
Failure results in feeling of shame and doubt

Question 3

Preschool (3 to 5 years)

Initiative Vs guilt

Answer 3

Exploration
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment
Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose
Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval - sense of guilt

Question 4

School age

Industry vs inferiority

Answer 4

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands
Success - a sense of competence
Failure - feelings of inferiority

Question 5

Adolescence

Identity vs role confusion

Answer 5

Social relationship
Trends tend to develop a sense of self and personal identity
Success - staying true to yourself
Failure - role confusion and a weak sense of self

Question 6

Young adulthood (19 to 40 years) 
Intimacy vs isolation

Answer 6

Relationships
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people
Success - strong relationship
Failure - loneliness and isolation

Question 7

Albert Bandura

Answer 7

Mediating process occur between stimuli and responses

Behaviour is learned from the environment through process of observational learning

Question 8

What are the phases of Bowlby attachment?

Answer 8

Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks)
Attachment in making (6 months)
Clear-cut attachment (to 24 months)
Reciprocal relationship (for several years)

Question 9

Preattachment

Answer 9

Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adult - smiling/crying/cooing and making eye contact
Soothed by the presence of others

Question 10

Attachment in the making (to 6 months)

Answer 10

Infants begin to develop a sense of trust in mothers

Depend on her in times of needs

Question 11

Clear-cut attachment

Answer 11

Attachment is established
The infant prefers mother over anyone else
Experience separation anxiety when she leaves
The intensity of separation anxiety is influenced by infants temperament and the way in which caregiver respond and soothes the infant

Question 12

Reciprocal relationship

Answer 12

As language develops, separation anxiety declines
The infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back
A sense of security has developed

Question 13

What is the purpose of strange situation classification - Ainsworth

Answer 13

Investigate how attachment might vary between children

Question 14

What is Ainsworth 3 main attachment styles?

Answer 14

Secure (type B)
Insecure avoidant (type A)
Insecure ambivalent/resistant (type C)

Question 15

Menella, Jagnow, C.P., Beauchamp, G.K.

Answer 15

3 groups of infants
Control: others only drank water during pregnancy and after birth
Other: mother drank carrot juice during pregnancy and water after birth
Other: mothers drank water during pregnancy and carrot juice after birth

Question 16

What can newborns discriminate?

Answer 16

Sounds that can differ in loudness, duration direction and pitch

Question 17

Grasping

Answer 17

Place an object in open palm and infant will grab

Question 18

Moro

Answer 18

Infants placed in a semi-upright position
The head is momentary allowed to fall slightly backward into examiner hand
Child will symmetrically fling arms from body and flex their thumbs followed by a reverse flexion of arms as if grasping into mother

Question 19

Stepping

Answer 19

When soles of feet touch a flat surface

They will attempt to walk by placing one door in front of other

Question 20

Reaching and grasping

Answer 20

3-5 months

Question 21

Crawling

Answer 21

7-9 months

Question 22

Walking

Answer 22

1 year

Question 23

Classical conditioning

Answer 23

Elicit emotional, physiological or reflexive response

Question 24

Operant conditioning

Answer 24

Emit behaviour in response to a stimuli

Reinforcers and punishers

Question 25

Information-processing computational approach

Answer 25

Human mind is best conceived of as computational system

Question 26

Systems theories - holistic approach

Answer 26

Viewing individual or group as it’s own ecosystem with many moving parts that affect each other

1. Characterised by comprehension of parts of something as intimately interconnected
2. Characterised by treatment of whole person

Question 27

Critical theories - sociological approaches

Answer 27

A social theory orientated toward critiquing and changing society as a whole

Question 28

Longitudinal study

Answer 28

A type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed for an extended period of time

Question 29

Cross sectional study

Answer 29

A representive cross section of population is tested or surveyed at one specific time

1. Look at people who differ in one key characteristic at one specific point in time
2. Participant usually separated into groups known as cohort
3. Observational in nature

Question 30

Cohort sequential study

Answer 30

A cross section of population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period o time

Question 31

List of advantages of longitudinal studies

Answer 31

1. Effective in determining variable patterns over time
2. Clear focus and validity
3. Effective in doing research on developmental tends
4. More powerful than cross sectional studies

Question 32

Effective in determining variables over time

Answer 32

Learn about cause and effect relationship
Make connection in a clearer manner
More data over long period - more concise and better results
Highly valid for long term changes
Unique / provide useful data about individual changes

Question 33

What is strength of cross-sectional studies

Answer 33

1. Relatively cheap
2. Easy to do
3. No follow up

Question 34

Limitation

Answer 34

1. Not useful for studying rare exposure/outcomes

2. Can’t assess causation

Question 35

Cohort sequential design definition

Answer 35

Multiple samples of participants of different ages are followed over time and tested at different ages

Question 36

Advantage of cohort sequential design

Answer 36

Can compare ages with first test pony

Generation effects are less problematic

Question 37

Primary intersubjectivity

Answer 37

Onset of long mutual gaze between infant and caregiver

Question 38

Still face paradigm

Answer 38

Tronick
Asked mothers who had been enjoying dialogue with their baby to stop moving and maintain a static unsmiling expression on their faces
Baby would try to attempt their mother into interaction by smiling themselves and would be puzzled and increasingly distressed when their smile did not provoke usual response

Question 39

Evaluation of still face paradigm

Answer 39

Unethical
Lacks mundane realism
Lacks eco validity
Only mothers used

Question 40

Delayed transmission paradigm

Answer 40

Trevarthen
Two month old infant first interacts via a video monitor with monitor in real time
Then played a tape of mother in which she wasn’t responding to the infants facial and bodily gestures
Showing no response to infant = acute distress, eventually gave up and turned away

Question 41

What is the evaluation of Trevarthen?

Answer 41

Failure to replicate
Less carefully controlled
Infants couldn’t distinguish between live and videotape

Question 42

Pouting - Oster 2005

Answer 42

Pouting = baby’s first effort to regulate distress and maintain social contact
Part of emotion-regulation process to signal caregiver to provide comfort before baby cries

Question 43

Tongue protrusion

Answer 43

Meltzoff and Moore mirroring

1. Adult model = 3 facial expression/ hand movement where fingers move in a sequence
2. Dummy placed in infants mouth during initial display to prevent any response
3. Following display, dummy removed and Childs expression was filmed on video
4. 2-3 week old able to initiate specific facial hand gesture
5. Association between infant behaviour and that of adult model

Question 44

Evaluation of tongue protrusion

Answer 44

1. Difficult in testing infant behaviour
2. Baby’s mouth are in constant motion. And expression that tested occur frequently
3. Difficult to observe between general activity and specific limited behaviour

Question 45

Freud (1940, 1964) - biological drives

Impulses - unconscious

Answer 45

Our earliest childhood memories may be locked in our unconscious and influence everyday life
Believed that infant needed mother primarily as food source
Infant attached to mother through having oral need such as feeding

Question 46

Harlow (1959)

Answer 46

Study mechanism by which newborn rhesus monkey bond with mothers
16 monkeys separated from mother immediately after birth, placed in cages
Access to two surrogate mothers
1. Provides food
2. Provides comfort
The group of monkeys spent more time with cloth mother
Contact is more important than feeding in formation of infant mother attachment

Question 47

Evaluation of Harlow

Answer 47

1. Cruel
2. Limited value in attempting to understand the affects of deprivation on human infants
3. Monkeys sufferered emotional harm (isolation)
4. Fear and depression
5. Animal studies cannot be applied to humans