Lecture 9 Flashcards
Infancy
trust vs mistrust
Children develop a sense of trust when caregiver provide reliability, care and affection
A lack of this would will lead to mistrust
Early childhood
Autonomy vs shame and doubt
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence
Success leads to feelings of autonomy
Failure results in feeling of shame and doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years)
Initiative Vs guilt
Exploration
Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment
Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose
Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval - sense of guilt
School age
Industry vs inferiority
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands
Success - a sense of competence
Failure - feelings of inferiority
Adolescence
Identity vs role confusion
Social relationship
Trends tend to develop a sense of self and personal identity
Success - staying true to yourself
Failure - role confusion and a weak sense of self
Young adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs isolation
Relationships
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people
Success - strong relationship
Failure - loneliness and isolation
Albert Bandura
Mediating process occur between stimuli and responses
Behaviour is learned from the environment through process of observational learning
What are the phases of Bowlby attachment?
Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks)
Attachment in making (6 months)
Clear-cut attachment (to 24 months)
Reciprocal relationship (for several years)
Preattachment
Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adult - smiling/crying/cooing and making eye contact
Soothed by the presence of others
Attachment in the making (to 6 months)
Infants begin to develop a sense of trust in mothers
Depend on her in times of needs
Clear-cut attachment
Attachment is established
The infant prefers mother over anyone else
Experience separation anxiety when she leaves
The intensity of separation anxiety is influenced by infants temperament and the way in which caregiver respond and soothes the infant
Reciprocal relationship
As language develops, separation anxiety declines
The infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back
A sense of security has developed
What is the purpose of strange situation classification - Ainsworth
Investigate how attachment might vary between children
What is Ainsworth 3 main attachment styles?
Secure (type B) Insecure avoidant (type A) Insecure ambivalent/resistant (type C)
Menella, Jagnow, C.P., Beauchamp, G.K.
3 groups of infants
Control: others only drank water during pregnancy and after birth
Other: mother drank carrot juice during pregnancy and water after birth
Other: mothers drank water during pregnancy and carrot juice after birth
What can newborns discriminate?
Sounds that can differ in loudness, duration direction and pitch
Grasping
Place an object in open palm and infant will grab
Moro
Infants placed in a semi-upright position
The head is momentary allowed to fall slightly backward into examiner hand
Child will symmetrically fling arms from body and flex their thumbs followed by a reverse flexion of arms as if grasping into mother
Stepping
When soles of feet touch a flat surface
They will attempt to walk by placing one door in front of other
Reaching and grasping
3-5 months
Crawling
7-9 months
Walking
1 year
Classical conditioning
Elicit emotional, physiological or reflexive response
Operant conditioning
Emit behaviour in response to a stimuli
Reinforcers and punishers
Information-processing computational approach
Human mind is best conceived of as computational system
Systems theories - holistic approach
Viewing individual or group as it’s own ecosystem with many moving parts that affect each other
- Characterised by comprehension of parts of something as intimately interconnected
- Characterised by treatment of whole person
Critical theories - sociological approaches
A social theory orientated toward critiquing and changing society as a whole
Longitudinal study
A type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed for an extended period of time
Cross sectional study
A representive cross section of population is tested or surveyed at one specific time
- Look at people who differ in one key characteristic at one specific point in time
- Participant usually separated into groups known as cohort
- Observational in nature
Cohort sequential study
A cross section of population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period o time
List of advantages of longitudinal studies
- Effective in determining variable patterns over time
- Clear focus and validity
- Effective in doing research on developmental tends
- More powerful than cross sectional studies
Effective in determining variables over time
Learn about cause and effect relationship
Make connection in a clearer manner
More data over long period - more concise and better results
Highly valid for long term changes
Unique / provide useful data about individual changes
What is strength of cross-sectional studies
- Relatively cheap
- Easy to do
- No follow up
Limitation
- Not useful for studying rare exposure/outcomes
2. Can’t assess causation
Cohort sequential design definition
Multiple samples of participants of different ages are followed over time and tested at different ages
Advantage of cohort sequential design
Can compare ages with first test pony
Generation effects are less problematic
Primary intersubjectivity
Onset of long mutual gaze between infant and caregiver
Still face paradigm
Tronick
Asked mothers who had been enjoying dialogue with their baby to stop moving and maintain a static unsmiling expression on their faces
Baby would try to attempt their mother into interaction by smiling themselves and would be puzzled and increasingly distressed when their smile did not provoke usual response
Evaluation of still face paradigm
Unethical
Lacks mundane realism
Lacks eco validity
Only mothers used
Delayed transmission paradigm
Trevarthen
Two month old infant first interacts via a video monitor with monitor in real time
Then played a tape of mother in which she wasn’t responding to the infants facial and bodily gestures
Showing no response to infant = acute distress, eventually gave up and turned away
What is the evaluation of Trevarthen?
Failure to replicate
Less carefully controlled
Infants couldn’t distinguish between live and videotape
Pouting - Oster 2005
Pouting = baby’s first effort to regulate distress and maintain social contact
Part of emotion-regulation process to signal caregiver to provide comfort before baby cries
Tongue protrusion
Meltzoff and Moore mirroring
- Adult model = 3 facial expression/ hand movement where fingers move in a sequence
- Dummy placed in infants mouth during initial display to prevent any response
- Following display, dummy removed and Childs expression was filmed on video
- 2-3 week old able to initiate specific facial hand gesture
- Association between infant behaviour and that of adult model
Evaluation of tongue protrusion
- Difficult in testing infant behaviour
- Baby’s mouth are in constant motion. And expression that tested occur frequently
- Difficult to observe between general activity and specific limited behaviour
Freud (1940, 1964) - biological drives
Impulses - unconscious
Our earliest childhood memories may be locked in our unconscious and influence everyday life
Believed that infant needed mother primarily as food source
Infant attached to mother through having oral need such as feeding
Harlow (1959)
Study mechanism by which newborn rhesus monkey bond with mothers
16 monkeys separated from mother immediately after birth, placed in cages
Access to two surrogate mothers
1. Provides food
2. Provides comfort
The group of monkeys spent more time with cloth mother
Contact is more important than feeding in formation of infant mother attachment
Evaluation of Harlow
- Cruel
- Limited value in attempting to understand the affects of deprivation on human infants
- Monkeys sufferered emotional harm (isolation)
- Fear and depression
- Animal studies cannot be applied to humans
