Lecture 7 - Memory and Forgetting Flashcards
What is a single dissociation in neuropsychology?
A single dissociation occurs when damage to one brain area disrupts Function A but leaves Function B intact, indicating that the two functions are at least partially different.
What is a double dissociation in neuropsychology?
A double dissociation requires finding patients who show the opposite pattern: damage to Area 2 leaves Function A intact but disrupts Function B, indicating that Functions A and B are independent.
What was a key finding from studying Patient HM?
HM showed normal working memory but could not form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia). This provided evidence for the distinction between working memory and long-term memory.
How did HM’s memory show a double dissociation between working and long-term memory?
HM had normal memory span (working memory) but could not transfer information to long-term memory, showing the separation between the two types of memory.
What is the difference between declarative and non-declarative memory?
Declarative memory involves facts and events that can be consciously recalled (e.g., episodic and semantic memory), while non-declarative memory involves skills and actions that are not consciously accessible (e.g., procedural memory).
How can patients with anterograde amnesia still learn new skills?
Despite impaired declarative memory (e.g., facts and events), patients with anterograde amnesia can still learn perceptual skills, problem-solving skills, and procedural tasks (e.g., Tower of Hanoi, billiards, or computer operation).
Can brain damage impair procedural memory without affecting declarative memory?
Yes, brain damage can cause impairments in procedural memory (e.g., apraxia, aphasia, acalculia, prosopagnosia) while leaving declarative memory intact.
What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?
Episodic memory refers to the memory of personal experiences and events (“mental time travel”), while semantic memory refers to general knowledge about the world (e.g., facts, concepts, names).
How does semantic dementia affect episodic and semantic memory?
In semantic dementia, semantic memory (e.g., knowledge of facts, objects, people) deteriorates, but episodic memory (e.g., personal experiences) can remain preserved, especially for recent events.
What evidence supports a double dissociation between episodic and semantic memory?
Patients like KC and Clive Wearing have no recollection of personal experiences (episodic memory loss) but retain knowledge of facts (semantic memory intact). On the other hand, patients with semantic dementia have impaired semantic memory but preserved episodic memory.
What types of memory were tested in semantic dementia patients in Adlam, Patterson, and Hodges (2009)?
Patients were tested on semantic memory (e.g., object and sound knowledge, map location) and episodic memory (e.g., memory for recent episodes, specific events).
What are the key points in understanding working memory (WM) capacity?
Working memory has a limited capacity. Sensory memory stores large amounts of information that decays quickly. Only information that receives attention is maintained in working memory.
How does attention influence what we perceive and remember?
Attention filters what we perceive and store, guided by our past experiences and what is deemed important or rewarding. This means our memory and perception are not accurate, but influenced by individual attentional filters.
How does worrying affect working memory (WM)?
Worrying competes for resources in working memory, limiting its capacity, especially in stressful situations like exams.
What did Ramirez & Beilock (2011) test in their study on stress and working memory?
They tested whether reducing or eliminating worrying could decrease the freezing under pressure effect during high-pressure math problems.
What were the results of Ramirez & Beilock’s (2011) study?
The expressive writing group (writing about their feelings) performed more accurately on the post-test, showing that writing about worries could free up working memory resources.
What types of recall tests are used to measure forgetting?
Free recall, cued recall, serial recall, and recognition tests.
What is the difference between recall and recognition tests?
Recall involves retrieving information without cues, while recognition involves identifying previously learned material from a list of options.
What did Ebbinghaus (1885) contribute to the study of forgetting?
He tested forgetting by learning lists of nonsense syllables and measuring how much was retained after varying time intervals.
How does forgetting follow a predictable pattern according to research?
Forgetting is often described by a power function, where retention decreases systematically over time.
Why is the orderliness of forgetting important in understanding memory?
It suggests that forgetting is not simply due to decay but might involve retrieval failure or interference from other memories.
What factors contribute to forgetting, aside from decay?
Retrieval failure, interference from similar memories, and inadequate cues.
What is interference theory in forgetting?
Interference theory suggests that forgetting happens because new information disrupts the recall of old information, or vice versa.
How does proactive interference affect memory?
Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information makes it harder to learn and recall new information.
What did Bahrick et al. (1975) find about the forgetting of school classmates?
Even after 30 years, people were able to remember their school classmates, suggesting some memories are highly resilient.
How do interference and time interact in memory retention?
Forgetting is more likely when there are many similar memories or experiences accumulated during a given period, not just the passage of time.
How does encoding at acquisition affect later retrieval?
Deep processing and actively organizing material during encoding enhance later retrieval.
What did Craik & Tulving (1975) find about processing depth during encoding?
They found that processing the meaning of words (semantic processing) results in better memory than superficial processing like case or rhyme matching.
How do mnemonics aid memory?
Mnemonics help by organizing material in a memorable framework, often using imagery and association to enhance recall.
What is the method of loci?
A mnemonic technique where you visualize a route or location and associate information with specific points along the route to aid memory.
How does the fan effect influence memory retrieval?
The fan effect occurs when multiple facts are learned about a single concept, making it harder to retrieve any one specific fact due to interference from other facts.
What is retrograde memory loss after a concussion?
Retrograde memory loss refers to the loss of memories before the trauma, often spanning minutes to hours, due to disruption in memory consolidation.
How does consolidation affect memory?
Consolidation strengthens memories over time, and recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older ones.
What is Ribot’s law regarding memory consolidation?
Ribot’s law states that older memories are more robust and better preserved than recent ones after hippocampal damage.
How are false memories formed?
False memories are formed when reconstructed memories are influenced by external suggestions, leading to the incorporation of incorrect information.
What did Loftus & Palmer (1974) find regarding eyewitness testimony?
They found that the way questions are worded after an event can alter a person’s memory of that event, creating false memories (e.g., “smashed into” vs. “hit”).
What is the role of suggestion in creating false memories?
Suggestion can lead individuals to remember events that never occurred, often due to source amnesia, where the source of the memory is forgotten.
How do emotional states affect memory retrieval?
Negative emotions during encoding can make memories more vulnerable to distortion, while negative mood during retrieval may enhance access to negative memories.
What is state-dependent learning?
State-dependent learning refers to better memory retrieval when the emotional or environmental state at the time of learning matches the state at retrieval.
How does curiosity impact learning and memory?
When people are curious about information, they are more likely to remember it better, demonstrating the link between motivation and improved memory.
