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College Biology > Lecture 6 - module 2 > Flashcards

Lecture 6 - module 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is respiration used for?

A

Organisms use cellular respiration to extract energy from organic molecules.

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2
Q

What are two categories of how organisms obtain energy?

A
  1. Autotrophs
  2. Heterotrophs
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3
Q

How do autotrophs obtain energy?

A

They produce their own organic molecules through photosynthesis to break down into energy

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4
Q

How do heterotrophs obtain energy?

A

They consume organic compounds produced by other organisms to break down into energy.

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5
Q

How do organisms extract energy from organic molecules?

A

Cellular respiration.

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6
Q

What is the basic formula for cellular respiration?

A

Sugar (glucose) + 6 Oxygen = 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water + energy

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7
Q

What is free energy?

A

Large amount of energy that must be released in small steps.

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8
Q

How much free energy can come from one mol of glucose?

A

-686 kcal/mol or more.

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9
Q

Why does cellular respiration occur in many steps instead of all at once?

A

Because it increases the amount of energy made and decreases the amount lost.

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10
Q

What do electron carriers do?

A

Catch energy.

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11
Q

What is an example of an electron carrier?

A

NAD+ which acquires 2 electrons and a proton to become NADH.

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12
Q

What do cells use ATP for?

A

To drive reactions.

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13
Q

What are 2 mechanisms for synthesis of ATP?

A
  1. Substrate-level phosphorylation
  2. Oxidative phosphorylation
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14
Q

What is the substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

It transfers the phosphate group directly to ADP.

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15
Q

What is the oxidative phosphorylation?

A

Indirect way of making ATP from a proton gradient.

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16
Q

What are 4 steps of cellular respiration?

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Pyruvate oxidation
  3. Citric acid cycle
  4. Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
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17
Q

What is the input and output for glycolysis?

A

1 glucose (6 carbons) = 2 pyruvate (3 carbons)

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18
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

In the cytoplasm.

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19
Q

What is produced in glycolysis?

A

Net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

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20
Q

What happens with pyruvate after glycolysis?

A

Oxidation:
1. Aerobic respiration - if there is oxygen
or
2. Fermentation - if there is no oxygen

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21
Q

What is aerobic respiration?

A
  1. When pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) which enters the citric acid cycle.
  2. oxygen is final electron receptor
  3. significant amount of ATP produced
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22
Q

What is fermentation?

A
  1. When pyruvate is reduced in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD.
  2. oxygen is not available
  3. organic molecule is the final electron acceptor
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23
Q

What must happen to NADH?

A

It must be recycled so the process can continue.

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24
Q

What is pyruvate oxidation?

A

When pyruvate is in the presence of oxygen, it is oxidized.

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25
Q

Where does pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

In eukaryotes it occurs in the mitochondria and in prokaryotes it occurs in the plasma membrane.

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26
Q

What are the products from the oxidation of one 3-carbon pyruvate?

A

1 CO2
1 NADH
1 acetyl-COA.

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27
Q

What is the citric acid cycle?

A

When the acetyl group from pyruvate is oxidized.

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28
Q

Where does the citric acid cycle occur?

A

The matrix of the mitochondria.

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29
Q

What are the steps of the citric acid cycle?

A
  1. Acetyl-CoA + oxaloacetate = citrate
  2. Citrate rearrangement of decarboxylation
  3. Regeneration of oxaloacetate
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30
Q

What is the product from one Acetyl-CoA in the citric acid cycle?

A

2 CO2r
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP

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31
Q

What is the electron transport chain (ETC)?

A

A series of membrane-bound electron carriers.

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32
Q

Where is the electron transport chain?

A

Embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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33
Q

What does the ETC do?

A
  1. Transfers electrons to complexes of ETC and passes them along
  2. Each complex operates as a protein pump, driving protons to the intermembrane space
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34
Q

What is chemiosmosis?

A

Accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space drives protons into the matrix via diffusion.

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35
Q

How do protons reenter the matrix?

A

ATP synthase.

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36
Q

How is ATP synthesis carried out?

A

By tiny rotary motor driven by protein gradient. Protons travel through the stalk and cause the head to rotate.

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37
Q

What is the theoretical energy yield of respiration?

A

30-32 ATP

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38
Q

How does anerobic respiration occur without oxygen?

A

The final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule other than oxygen. Many prokaryotes use sulfur, nitrate, carbon dioxide.

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39
Q

What are the two oxidation processes that can occur without oxygen?

A
  1. Anaerobic respiration
  2. fermentation
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40
Q

What are 2 types of anaerobic respiration?

A
  1. methanogens
  2. sulfur prokaryotes
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41
Q

What is mathanogens?

A

When CO2 is reduced to CH4. Found in cows.

42
Q

What is sulfur prokaryotes?

A

inorganic sulfate is reduced to hydrogen sulfide.

43
Q

What is fermentation?

A

Reducing organic molecules in order to regenerate NAD

44
Q

What are two types of fermentation?

A
  1. Ethanol fermentation - occurs in yeast
  2. Lactic acid fermentation - occurs in animal cells
45
Q

What is catabolism of proteins?

A

When amino acids undergo deamination to remove the amino group and the remainder of the amino acid is converted toa molecule that enters glycolysis or the citric acid cycle.

46
Q

What is catabolism of fat?

A

When fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol.

47
Q

Which produces more energy: respiration of a 6-carbon fatty acid or a 6-carbon glucose?

A

6-carbon fatty acid produces 20% more energy.

48
Q

What is the process of photosynthesis?

A

6 carbon dioxide + water + light = glucose + water + oxygen

49
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A

The process through which energy from the sun is captured.

50
Q

What things carry out oxygenic photosynthesis?

A
  1. cyanobacteria
  2. 7 groups of algae
  3. all land plants
51
Q

What are two types of photosynthesis?

A
  1. light dependent reactions
  2. carbon fixation reactions/light independent reactions/dark reactions
52
Q

What are the steps of light dependent photosynthesis?

A
  1. capture energy from sunlight
  2. make ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH
53
Q

What are steps for dark photosynthesis?

A
  1. use ATP and NADPH to synthesize organic molecules from CO2.
54
Q

What are 4 parts of the chloroplast?

A
  1. Thylakoid membrane
  2. Grana
  3. Stroma lamella
  4. Stroma
55
Q

What is the thylakoid membrane?

A

The internal membrane of a chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments.

56
Q

What is grana?

A

Stacks of flattened sacs of thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts.

57
Q

What is stroma lamella?

A

Connected grana in chloroplasts.

58
Q

What is stroma?

A

Semiliquid surrounding thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts.

59
Q

What are pigments?

A

Molecules that absorb light energy in the visible range.

60
Q

What is light a form of?

A

Energy.

61
Q

What is a photon?

A

A particle of light that acts as a discrete bundle of energy.

62
Q

What is energy content of a photon inversely proportional to?

A

The wavelength of light.

63
Q

What is the photoelectric effect?

A

Removal of an electron from a molecule by light.

64
Q

What happens to energy when a photon strikes a molecule?

A
  1. It is lost as heat
    or
  2. It is absorbed by the electrons of the molecule
65
Q

What is absorption spectrum?

A

The range of efficiency of photons a molecule is capable of absorbing.

66
Q

What are 2 general types of pigments used in green plant photosynthesis?

A
  1. Chlorophylls
  2. Carotenoids
67
Q

What are the main colors of light that plants absorb?

A

blue and red.

68
Q

Why do plants look green?

A

Because they absorb the other wavelengths/colors of light and the green waves are what color is reflected to our eyes.

69
Q

What is chlorophyll a?

A

It is the main pigment in plants and cyanobacteria and the only pigment that can directly convert light energy to chemical energy.

70
Q

What light waves does chlorophyll a absorb?

A

violet-blue and red light.

71
Q

What is chlorophyll b?

A

An accessory pigment/secondary pigment that absorbs wavelengths that chlorophyll a does not.

72
Q

What are 2 types of accessory pigments?

A
  1. Carotenoids
  2. Phycobiloproteins - important in low-light ocean areas
73
Q

What are 2 components of photosystems?

A
  1. Antenna complex
  2. Reaction center
74
Q

What is the antenna complex?

A

It gathers photons and feeds the captured light energy to the reaction center. (made up of hundreds of accessory pigment molecules)

75
Q

What is the reaction center?

A

It passes excited electrons out of the photosystem. (made up of 1 or more chlorophyll a molecules)

76
Q

What are the steps of light dependent photosynthesis?

A
  1. Primary photo event
  2. Charge separation
  3. Electron transport
  4. Chemiosmosis
77
Q

What is the primary photo event?

A

When the photon of light is captured by a pigment molecule.

78
Q

What is the charge separation?

A

When energy is transferred to the reaction center.

79
Q

What is the electron transport?

A

When electrons move through carriers to reduce NADP

80
Q

What is chemiosmosis?

A

It produces ATP.

81
Q

What is cyclic photphosphorylation?

A

A way of generating ATP via electron transport that only occurs in bacteria and is anoxygenic photosynthesis (oxygen is not a byproduct).

82
Q

What is noncyclic photophosphorylation?

A
  1. Plants use both photystems 2 and 1 in series to produces both ATP and NADPH
  2. the path of the electrons is not a circle
  3. photosystems replenished with electrons obtained by splitting water
83
Q

What is photosystem I?

A

Oxygenic photosynthesis functions like sulfur bacteria.

84
Q

What is photosystem II?

A

It can generate an oxidation potential high enough to oxidize water to make oxygen.

85
Q

What are photosystems I and II a part of?

A

noncyclic photosynthesis.

86
Q

How does photosystem I and II work together?

A

Photosystem 2 replaces electrons from breaking apart H2O and Photosystem I receives electrons from Photosystem II.

87
Q

What is generated through Photosystem I and II?

A

ATP and NADPH.

88
Q

What is chemiosmosis?

A

An electromagnetic gradient that can be used to synthesize ATP.

89
Q

What allows protons back into the stroma?

A

Chloroplast has ATP synthase enzymes in the thylakoid membrane.

90
Q

What do stroma do in chemiosmosis?

A

It catalyzes the reactions of carbon fixation through enzymes. (Does Calvin cycle reactions)

91
Q

What is the same as mitochondria in cellular respiration?

A

The stroma in chemisomosis.

92
Q

How do cells build carbohydrates?

A

They use energy (ATP from light-dependent reactions) and reduction potential (NADPH from photosystem I).

93
Q

Who is the Calvin cycle named after?

A

Melvin Calvin.

94
Q

What are the three phases of the Calvin cycle?

A
  1. Carbon fixation
  2. Reduction
  3. Regeneration of RuBP
95
Q

What does 3 turns of the Calvin cycle incorporate enough carbon to produce?

A

A new G3P.

96
Q

What does 6 turns of the Calvin cycle incorporate enough carbon to produce?

A

1 glucose.

97
Q

What is the direct output of the Calvin cycle?

A

G3P.

98
Q

What is the indirect output of the Calvin cycle?

A

Glucose.

99
Q

What is G3P?

A

A 3 carbon sugar used to form sucrose or starch.

100
Q

What is the energy cycle?

A

Where photosynthesis uses the products of respiration as starting substrates and respiration uses the products of photosynthesis as starting substrates. Used to turn light into a more usable form of energy.

101
Q
A

College Biology (24 decks)

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