Lecture 5 (final) Flashcards
what is a species
animals that tend to make and produce fertile offspring
what is a genus
species that evolved from common ancestor (e.g., loins, tigers, leopards, jaguars are genus Panthera)
what are human’s genus and species
We are of genus Homo (man) and species sapiens (wise)
what is the human family
great ape.
what is a family
all genera originating from same ancestor
what is the out of africa hypothesis
that we all came from africa then travelled out of it
human history had how any phases
3
what are the 3 phases of human evolution
cognitive revolution
agriculture revolution
scientific revolution
what was the cognitive revolution
Drastic increase in brain size: our brain is about 2.5% of body weight, but consumes 25% of body resting energy (apes: 8%). We do not know what drove this dramatic brain development.
what is the consequences of the cognitive revolution
spend more time looking for food, and muscle atrophy, human premature birth (raising child by group) due to bigger brain and smaller pelvis (upright walk), cooking (handling fire), language.
what are the benefits of the cognitive revolution
Ability to communicate knowledge about world Planning complex actions (e.g., avoiding predators)
Ability to communicate about social structure
Larger groups of humans can live together (up to 150, after that information cannot be share effectively about everyone).
Ability to communicate about things that do not exist
Cooperation of strangers (myths, concepts); rapid innovation of social behaviour (laws, traditions).
what is the agricultural revolution
For 100K years hominids depended on hunting and gathering for survival. Humans followed their food around, camped around protective sites and waterholes. But 8K years ago agriculture emerged, animals were domesticated (or did they domesticate us?): concepts of ownership emerged, instead of kinship tribal bands, villages and cities and nations became default social structures
Diet change from wholesome to monocultural, nutrition related diseases.
Reduced knowledge about the wider surroundings, animals, plants, geography, etc than nomadic humans.
Sedentary life style. Spending more time on working for food than hunter and gatherers; work-related diseases
what do Evolutionary Psychologists argue about our minds and the agriculture revolution
Evolutionary Psychologists argue that our minds are hunter-gatherer minds and our behaviour reflects this
who led the scientific revolution
Galileo, Bacon, Descartes
what was the scientific revolution
development of scientific method to understand nature with the aim to control it (an old human dream)
what is nativism
Knowledge of the world is mostly innate, and determines certain abilities
what are the two opposing views on what explains behavioural similarities and differences
nativism and empiricism
what vie is associated with nativism
This view is associated with the idea that NATURE (i.e., genes etc) determines behaviour
who is a famous nativist
descartes
what view is empiricism associated with
This view is associated with the idea that NURTURE (environment) determines behaviour.
what is tabula rasa
a blank slate
what is empiricism
At birth mind is tabula rasa, nothing in terms of behaviour and knowledge is inherited, all is learned
who is a famous empiricist
Locke was an empiricist
what is Interactionism
Certain basic abilities and knowledge is innate, but can be influenced by experience, which in turn can change what innate behaviours are expressed, which influences what will be experienced, and so on. This view is supported strongly by the available evidence.
which is more right, empiricism or nativism
neither! it is Interactionism– s combination of both
behaviour needs to be explained along how many dimensions
2
what are the 2 dimensions to explain behaviour
proximate
ultimate
what is proximate causes
Proximate (=close) causes. Related to internal changes in an animal, such as hormones, learning, experience, etc. Explains “how” an animal produces a behaviour
what are ultimate cases
relates to the evolutionary causes of behaviour. Explains “why” an animal behaves as it does
what is an example of ultimate causes
For example, in classical conditioning, certain neural mechanisms and emotional states allow the association between a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus. These mechanisms are the proximate causes of the behaviour. Why animals are able to form such associations needs to be explained in evolutionary terms (e.g., increases their ability to survive).
do genes “cause” behaviour
Genes do not “cause” behaviour. They influence the development of the body, which gives rise or allows for certain behaviours to emerge
what does PIAGET’S THEORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT say
Certain knowledge and behaviours are innate
Babies use this knowledge to start exploring world.
If experience does not fit with existing conceptual knowledge (Disequilibrium), then the new experience needs to be accommodated by changing concepts of the world
New, knowledge-compatible experiences are then assimilated into existing concepts of the world
who had an interactionism view
piaget
what is the sequence to piaget’s theory
assimilation– when a baby incorporates new objects into the scheme
equilibrium
new situation
disequilibrium– when experience does not fit with existing conceptual knowledge
accommodation– when the new object does not fit the existing scheme
what is the sequence of the levels of genes
Cells contain nuclei, which contain chromosomes, which contain DNA
what are chromosomes
Hereditary transmission of traits requires chromosomes, i.e., DNA
what does DNA stand for
deoxyribonucleic acid
what is dna
complex molecule which contains the genes
DNA contains information allowing cells to function
each human cell contains how many chromosomes
46
what kind of structure do DNA form
DNA molecule forms a double-helix structure resembling a ladder
what are the bases of DNA
The steps of the ladder are made of the bases Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosin (C), and Guanin (G)
what pairs do the bases in DNA form
These bases form the pairs: A-T, C-G.
Sequences of the base pairs on the DNA form what
Sequences of the base pairs on the DNA form genes
what do genes provide coding for
Genes provide the code for building proteins.
how many genes are in a human genome
The human genome contains about 20-30K genes
what is DNA packaged around
DNA is packaged around histones
what needs to happen to the Histones to allow DNA to be accessible
Histones need to unwrap to allow DNA to be accessible
why are histones critical
for regulating gene expression
what are Epigenetic mechanisms
Epigenetic mechanisms are processes that change gene expression, and operate on the level of the histones
what are Gene expression and epigenetic related to
Interactionism
what is the noncoding DNA used for
The non-coding DNA used to be labelled junk DNA, but it seems now essential for regulating gene expression
what is DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Contains genetic code in terms of base-pair sequences. There are parts of DNA that code for genes, and other parts that do not. The non-coding DNA used to be labelled junk DNA, but it seems now essential for regulating gene expression
what is transcription
The process of copying a strand of DNA, i.e., producing a copy of a gene. During transcription, DNA polymerase copies one strand of DNA by producing messenger RNA (or mRNA). mRNA contains the copy of the base sequence of DNA
what is Translation.
The process of producing a protein out of mRNA. This is done by ribosomes, organelles that are able to use mRNA to produce a protein
what is Nucleus.
An organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains DNA
what is Amino acid.
The building blocks of proteins. On mRNA, each triplet of bases codes for a specific amino acid. These triplets of bases are called codons. Ribosomes detect codons and select the appropriate amino acid to build the protein the mRNA codes for
what is Genotype.
The complete set of an organism’s genes
what is Phenotype.
The overt characteristics of an organism (resulting from what genes are expressed) Phenotype is product of genotype and environmental factors, and experience
what is an example of Phenotype
extensive exercise can lead to enlarged muscles, because this activity leads to the expression of genes permitting muscle growth
how does gene transmittion work
Cells in human body generally contain 46 chromosomes (=23 pairs; diploid set).
Female egg and male sperm contain only 23 chromosomes (one half of each pair, haploid set).
Combining two haploid sets (one father, one mother) produces a diploid set in the offspring during conception
what is one half of each pair of diploids called
haploid
how many diploids (sets) in a human
23
what are alleles
We inherit the genes coding for the same features once from our mother and once from our father. These different forms are called alleles
what are the 2 types of alleles
homozygous
heterozygous
what is Homozygous:
the alleles code for the same phenotype
what is Heterozygous:
the alleles code for different phenotypes. The expressed phenotype reflects the coding in the dominant gene. The recessive gene is usually not expressed
what is a fertilized cell called
zygotes
what are fraternal twins
separate eggs fertilized by separate sperm– share only about half their genes
what are identical twins
single egg fertilized by single sperm, then splits in 2– share all of their genes
do humans come with a set of inborn abilities
yes
Because of the way our species evolved, many abilities, tendencies, and characteristics are:
either present at birth in all human beings, or
develop rapidly as a child matures
what are some examples of the inborn abilities humans have
inborn reflexes
an attraction to novelty
a motive to explore and manipulate objects an impulse to play
the capacity for certain basic cognitive skills
what are 4 great examples of innate human behaviour
crying
grasping reflex
feeding behaviour
smiling and laughing
what is the crying and why is it an interesting innate human behaviour
well-coordinate and highly effective inborn behaviour is crying
Crying is complex, requiring coordination of many muscles
Crying is a form of primal communication, but it is highly effective
One of the best tools a baby has available to promote its survival, as it usually elicits a caring response from the parents, for who these sounds are highly irritating.
Research has shown that human brains respond in a specific way to human babies cries, which have the potential to activate the amygdala and promote a fear response
what is the grasping reflex and why is it an interesting innate human behaviour
Human newborns are remarkably strong, being able to support their own weight with the grasping reflex.
Seems to reflex the fact that primates used to have fur, and grasping allowed the newborn to attach itself to the mother
what is the feeding behaviour and why is it an interesting innate human behaviour
Human babies know how to search for, find, and use a nipple to get food
what is the smiling and laughing and why is it an interesting innate human behaviour
Boy blind and deaf from birth can smile and laugh. Impossible to learn this by imitation
what is the point of Inborn behaviours and behavioural tendencies
Inborn behaviours and behavioural tendencies may serve to improve adaptation to environmental constraints
what are Inborn behaviours and behavioural tendencies a form of
These are a form of a post-hoc explanation, a shortcoming of some explanations put forward in evolutionary psychology
what is a post-hoc explanation
, a shortcoming of some explanations put forward in evolutionary psychology
give examples of post-hoc explanation, a shortcoming of some explanations put forward in evolutionary psychology
sensory and perceptual abilities learning ethnocentrism cognitive biases memory emotions and emotional expressions stress reactions the tendency to gain weight when food is plentiful attachment to others
what is the basic idea of natural selection
Natural selection: Those organisms best adapted to their environment have a better chance of surviving and reproducing
what factors does the theory of evolution involve
This theory of evolution involves the following factors
Rapid multiplication
Limited environmental resources
Struggle for existence
Variation/Mutation
Survival of the fittest
Inheritance of the useful variation Formation of new species
what is rapid multiplication
Organisms reproduce more offspring than can survive (e.g., plants produce thousands of seeds; cod fish lay >million eggs).
what is limited resources
Increase of population requires mores resources (space and food), but both are limited and often relatively constant. Individuals compete for these limited resources.
what is competition (struggle for existence; BUT SEE SYMBIOSIS!)
The competition for the limited resources as well as for mates plays out on three levels: intraspecific (within species), interspecific (between species), environment (eg. flood, drought etc).
what is Variation & Adaptation.
Because environment changes, the more genetic variation (mutation) within a species, the more likely it will survive. Some traits in individuals allow them to adapt better to the environment than other organisms can
wha is Survival of the fittest (natural selection).
Individuals with most adaptive traits have higher probability to reproduce and pass on their genes. Natural selection acts on phenotype
what is an example of the “survival of the fittest”
Peppered moth
how is the peppered moth significant
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in England, coal burning produced soot that covered the countryside in many areas.
White moths became easier to see, while the black moths became harder to see. The black moths were more likely to survive and pass on the gene for dark color to their offspring.
Over time, the black moths have become more common
Evolutionary psychologists study our commonalities, such as…
personality, emotion, sexual behavior, reasoning and trace these to the processes of evolution, especially the process of natural selection.
what is the main job of evolutionary psychologists
trace these to the processes of evolution, especially the process of natural selection
They draw inferences about the behavioral tendencies that might have been selected.
These tendencies are then argued to have helped our ancestors to solve survival problems and enhanced their reproductive fitness, which is why the trait is now present.
They then conduct research to see if such tendencies actually exist throughout the world.
Many evolutionary psychologists believe that the mind is not a general- purpose computer. It is viewed as a collection of specialized mental modules to handle specific survival problems
what do Evolutionary psychologists argue about male and females and their sexual and courtship stuff
Evolutionary psychologists argue that males and females have evolved different sexual and courtship strategies. These have evolved in response to survival problems faced in the distant past.
what des the Evolutionary theoretical position argue
males tend to be promiscuous
females to be monogamous
wha does it mean by males tend to be promiscuous
to be attracted to young partners, and to want sexual novelty because they do not need to invest into a partner in order to spread their genes
what does it mean by females to be monogamous,
to be choosy about partners, and to prefer security to novelty because of the high cost of investment into a pregnancy
what is some criticism of mate selection
Critics argue that evolutionary explanations of infidelity and monogamy fall short on many levels.
Usually, these explanations are based on simplistic stereotypes of gender differences.
The research method used to explore these traits is based on questionnaires, which often do not reflect real-life choices.
Due to limited research resources, convenience samples are often used in questionnaire studies that are not necessarily representative of people in general.
The focus on the human prototype behaviour stemming from the Pleistocene Age may not be warranted: Our ancestors probably did not have a wide range of partners to choose from. Evidence suggests that what may have evolved is mate selection based on similarity and proximity
The focus on the human prototype behaviour stemming from the Pleistocene Age may not be warranted, what did people say against the sexual preference stuff
Our ancestors probably did not have a wide range of partners to choose from. Evidence suggests that what may have evolved is mate selection based on similarity and proximity
what is PROBLEMATIC EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
Often men care more about a partner’s chastity than women do, as predicted by evolutionary psychology. However, culture strongly moderates this. In China, both sexes prefer a partner who has not yet had intercourse, whereas in Sweden, this is not an issue
According to the fossil record, the first cellular life forms were what
unicellular prokaryotic cells
what were the features of the unicellular prokaryotic cells
These cells had no membrane-bound organelles, such as mitchondria, and had no nucleus (their name denotes that: “pro”=before, “karyon”=kernel)
did the unicellular prokaryotic cells have basic features of plant to animal cells
no
what kind of cells are found in plant and animal cells
Eukaryotic cells found in plants and animals contain specialised organelles, some of them surrounded by a membrane
what is unique about mitochondria
Mitochondria, for example, are organelles that also have their own DNA. The cell cannot make mitochondria, they reproduce independently by fission
was the evolution of eukaryotic cells a result of mutation or natural selection?
The evolution of eukaryotic cells may not have been the result of mutation and natural selection alone, but also symbiotic processes
what is the Theory of symbiogenesis
introduces evolutionary processes to explain the origin of species in addition to random mutation and natural selection. The theory proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from symbiosis of singly living prokaryotic life forms.
who is associated with the Theory of symbiogenesis
This theory is associated with the work of Konstantin Mereschkowski (1905) and Lynn Margulis (1967)
what are twi major problems with evolutionary psychology
Modularity
Confirmatory testing
what is Modularity
Plasticity in brain both during and after development hard to reconcile with modularity claim. However, primates, probably us included, have certain functions in place, such as a “snake detection module”.
what is Confirmatory testing
Evolutionary psychologist produce little research that allows to fairly test the influence of environmental factors and genetic factors.
Simple genetic model: If a trait exists, it does because it increased fitness. Thus, every behaviour humans as a species express must have produced increased fitness. How does suicide fit in here? Or homosexuality?
