Chapter 13 (final) Flashcards
what is Attribution theory
provides a framework to understand the reasons behind the actions of others. When making attributions that explain another person’s behaviors, the accuracy of our assessment varies. Although we would like to believe that we operate without bias, there are several factors that may make us more prone to error
When interpreting the actions of others, there are two basic attributions that can be made, what are they
(1) dispositional/internal causes or (2) situational/external causes
what are Dispositional or internal causes
encompass personality traits and characteristics of the person,
what are situational or external causes
are a function of the environment
what are we more likely to attribute the behavior of others to
dispositional or internal causes
when assessing our own behavior, we are more likely to make what attributions
situational or external attributions
what is Kelley’s covariation model
asserts that a single exposure to a person is insufficient to form accurate attributions, meaning multiple observation of behavior over time in a variety of different contexts are required to assess the source of another’s behavior
Kelley identified three factors that need consideration when making internal or external attributions: what are they
consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
what is Consistency
of behavior looks at how a person acts in the same situation/context across time
what is distinctiveness
of a person’s actions must also be considered, which determines whether the person behaves similarly across different situations/contexts.
what is consensus
compares the extent to which an individual’s behavior resembles the behavior of others
when are internal attributions made and when are external attributions made
In situations where an individual has high consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus, internal attributions are made. However, external attributions are made when there is low consistency, high distinctiveness, and high consensus
what is The fundamental attribution error (FAE)
explains how we assign attributes to self and others. Based on the FAE, we attribute the behavior of others to dispositional (internal) causes and our own behavior to environmental (external) causes
The fundamental attribution error is also known as what
the actor-observer bias
what does the The self-serving bias do
ensures that we depict ourselves in the best possible light
what is the false consensus effect
occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs
People assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them
what is impression formation
addresses how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups. Impression formation is heavily influenced by information that is initially available
what is first impression
The most important part of how you perceive others and others perceive you is referred to as a first impression, which is based on the primacy effect
what is primacy effect
An initial impression is more salient and is indicative of the primacy effect. Negative information is typically given more weight than positive information when formulating impressions; this is particularly evident when negative information is received first and capitalizes on the primacy effect
what is the confirmation bias
Confirmation bias occurs when we are more likely to attend to and process facts or events that are consistent with our initial impression. Conversely, information that contradicts our beliefs is either discarded or ignored. We do not attend to disconfirming evidence
what is self-fulfilling prophecy
If you believe something to be true or have a high degree of certainty about an outcome, you may unwittingly produce the expected result;
what is Social influence
is the process in which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others.
what are Social norms
prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time. As the situation changes, so does the expected response.
what is meant by customs are individualistic in western cultures
Western cultures, customs are individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group
what is meant by Eastern cultures are collectivist societies
where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual
what is conformity
the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group
what is Groupthink
there are three basic components that contribute to poor decision-making, including overestimating the group (illusion of invulnerability and a belief in inherent morality of the group), closemindedness (collective rationalization and stereotyped views of outgroup), and pressure for uniformity (direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards)
what is bystander effect
According to the bystander effect, a person in need of help is less likely to receive assistance as the number of onlookers increases. The level of inaction of others increases as the number of bystanders increase, so help is more likely to occur with fewer bystanders present
what is diffusion of responsibility
part of the bystander effect. they think it isn’t their responsibility
what is pluralistic ignorance
a social psychological concept that occurs when people fail to act because they unwittingly rely on social cues from others to guide their behavior, without realizing that the referent others also face uncertainty
what are Attitudes
Attitudes represent variations in thoughts, ideas, and opinions. We are born with no pre-set ideas; all attitudes are learned and are shaped by personal experience, direct instruction from others, and the ideas we observe in others, which may be positive, negative, or neutral
what are the three components of attitudes about a person or object:
cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestations
what is cognitive
The cognitive component addresses the thoughts one may have about someone or something
what is affective component
includes one’s feelings about the attitude in questions.
what is behavioral component
addresses the actions taken
what is Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger developed Cognitive Dissonance Theory to explain what happens when people’s attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent.
e.g. you say you want to stop global warming but you continue to drive car and pollute the world (this makes you uncomfortable because your views are not aligning)
how do you stop cognitive dissonance
(1) change the attitude, (2) change the behavior, (3) distort attitude(s), and (4) distort perceived behavior(s).
what are Stereotypes
are attitudes and opinions about people based on the group they are affiliated with
what is stereotype threat
When placed in situations where an individual is afraid that their performance will be consistent with the prevailing stereotype, the result is known as the stereotype threat.
what is Prejudice
However, prejudice is inherently negative. Prejudice is associated with hate and consists of negative attitudes directed at groups who share a similar characteristic.
what is discrimination
related to behavior
what is Realistic Conflict Theory
another explanation for hatred across minorities, based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict
what is the mere exposure effect
the more time and experience we have with another person can also increase our liking,
what does the Biological models say
explain differences in aggression levels in humans and animals as a function of genetics, hormones, and brain physiology.
what are Prosocial behaviors or altruism
behaviors that are done to benefit another without the expectation of anything in return
what is reciprocal altruism
implies that there is an expectation of some form of returned gesture that would require long-term score keeping; these explanations deviate from the pure idea of altruism that is based on selfless acts of kindness
what is reciprocity norm
dictates that if others help us, then we should provide something in return
what are the Three common forms of compliance
are the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique, and process referred to as lowballing
what is Foot-in-the-Door
initial request is small, so people willingly participate
what is Door-in-the-face
another method that relies on the reciprocity norm. When using door-in-the- face, the initial request is large and met with rejection, so a smaller request is made and then accepted
what is Lowballing
technique most commonly associated with car salesmen. The initial offer seems great and you are committed to the purchase, and then the deal is not as good. There are added fees and other charges that sour the deal; however, the salesperson is relying on the customer’s commitment to owning the vehicle in question. The salesperson also uses the reciprocity norm
