Lecture 2

Question 1

3 types of attention

Answer 1

1. Selective attention: a spotlight that moves the focus of attention from one thing to another. The ability to attend to a specific stimulus while other stimuli are around.
2. Focused attention: our ability to focus on a certain stimuli.
3. Divided attention: for doing things at the same time / multi-tasking.

Selective attention and focused attention is controlled by executive functions.

Question 2

Sustained attention

Answer 2

The active focussing and dividing attention over a long period of time. This depends on our altertnes and the intensity of our attention. With sustained attention we can perform vigilance tasks in which we have to divide our attention over a long period of time (like long car drives). When we use our sustained attention, this causes more errors over the time.

Question 3

Attention is defined through 2 processes:

Answer 3

1. Selectivity: choosing of different information and ignoring irrelevant information, and shifting between different tasks.
2. Intensity: the level of consciousness. How alert we are and if we can focus. Our attention intensity can be lower and higher (depends on phasic and tonic alertnes).

Question 4

Phasic alertness (fasische alterheid)

Answer 4

Related to short-term fluctuations in attention evoked or determined by stimuli present in the environment. This can be a startle from a sudden noise or paying extra attention to the hectic traffic situation.

Question 5

Tonic alertness

Answer 5

Your overall level of alertness. Intrinsic arousal that fluctuates over time. Provides the ‘tone’ that is necessary for higher-order cognition.

Question 6

Mental Schema Theory

Answer 6

Thinking and actions are controlled by the schema’s of the world. These schema’s are triggered by our environment. We constantly experience an overload of information, which has to be selected by contention scheduling. This chooses our strongest schema and thereby filters and selects relevant information.

If we experience new information, the supervisory attentional system (SAS) can inhibit the contention scheduling and activates the executive functions.

Question 7

Attentional control of behaviour

Answer 7

The central executive controls our attention processes by dividing attention between 3 subsystems:
1. The phonological loop: maintains verbal and auditory information.
2. The visuospatial sketchpad: visual and spatial information processing.
3. Episodic buffer: integrates all the information.

Question 8

Brain model of attention

Answer 8

Our attention is focused in the:
- Posterior attention system: orienting, awareness, environmental and visual spatial information.
- Anterior attention system: active and selective part of attention.
- Vigilance network: influences our alertness / state (default mode network).

Question 9

Attention Networks Theory

Answer 9

There are 2 attentional systems:
1. Bottom-up attention (ventral): is passive and activated by external stimuli.
2. Top-down attention (dorsal): is active an activated by selective processes and executive functions.

Question 10

How attention is assessed

Answer 10

Ideally attention tasks need 2 conditions:
1. Speed tasks: perform a task as fast as possible
2. Selection or switching: between tasks.

Examples: stroop task, trail making task, looking for keys task.

Question 11

Executive functions

Answer 11

Abilities that allow a person to adapt to new situations and develop and follow their life goals in a productive and constructive manner.

Question 12

Shielding and shifting dilemma

Answer 12

Executive function includes goal setting and control of behavior to achieve a goal. This causes a dilemma of control: protection against distraction (shielding) vs. being flexible in things that happen (shifting).

Question 13

Fractionated view of executive functions

Answer 13

Executive functions is an umbrella term for a lot of different functions/processes at the same time. There are multiple processes involved in executive function and these functions are present in different brain regions.

Question 14

Unitary view of executive functions

Answer 14

There is a central operator of the executive function (Central executive or SAS). This collaborates with other brain regions. But who is controlling this controller?

Question 15

Criticism on views of executive functions

Answer 15

• They both fail to explain how the brain controls itself.
• The same areas in the brain are activated by different processes.

Question 16

Network view (current view of executive functions)

Answer 16

The executive functions arise from the activation of different brain regions that are not structurally connected but are highly connected in communication with each other in a network of hubs. This network consists of:
- Fronto-subcortical network: involved in ef, planning and problem soving.
- Orbitofrontal network: social-cognitive and behavioural funtions.
- Anterior cingulate network: motivation.

Question 17

How are executive functions assessed?

Answer 17

They are hard to measure and often undetected in neuropsychological evaluation. But they can be measures in 3 ways:
1. Operational tasks: stimulus driven.
2. Tactical tasks: memory driven.
3. Strategic tasks: strategy driven.

Examples: stroop task, trail making task, looking for keys task.

Question 18

fMRI (functional MRI)

Answer 18

Time-varying changes in the brain metabolism on the basis of blood flow. Measures the BOLD-signal: blood oxygen level dependent signal.

How it works: when a brain region is more active, more oxynated blood goes to that region. This is measures in task-related fMRI vs. a rest condition.

Question 19

Attention networks

Answer 19

• Frontoparietal control network: initiation of executive control in tasks.
• Cingulo-opercular network: sustained control, tonic alertness.
• Default mode network: monitored by frontoparietal network. Important in self-related processes.

Question 20

Attention/executive functions over the lifespan

Answer 20

• 7-12 months: working memory and inhibitory control is developed.
• 3-5 years: goal directed behaviour and selective attention.
• 8-10 years: cognitive flexibility.
• 15 years: working memory and inhibitory control increases.
• 20-29: peak of executive functions.
• 50 years: decline of working memory.
• 70 years: decline of cognitive flexibility and executive functions.

Question 21

Causes of impairment of attention/ executive functions

Answer 21

• Traumatic brain injury
• ADHD
• Stroke
• Alzheimers
• MS

Question 22

Can we improve attention / executive functions?

Answer 22

If you had injury to the brain, your brain can reorganise itself due to brain plasticity. Cognitive training can lead to more cognitive plasticity, changes in flexibilty and better cognitive performance, but research shows mixed results.

We should focus less on IF it works, but more on WHY and WHEN it works and WHAT function is trained.