Lecture 13 Flashcards
What does personality refer to?
An individual’s unique set of consistent behavioral traits
Personality traits are stable over time and influence how individuals think, communicate, and behave.
Define a personality trait.
A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
Examples include impulsive, introverted, moody, anxious.
What is Factor Analysis?
A statistical approach to analyze correlations among many variables to identify closely related clusters of variables
Used to derive the Five Factor Model of personality traits.
What are the Five main personality traits according to the Five Factor Model?
- Agreeableness
- Extraversion
- Openness to Experience
- Neuroticism
- Conscientiousness
This model is based on extensive research and psychological testing.
What characterizes someone high in Agreeableness?
Sympathetic, trusting, modest, and cooperative
Correlated with empathy and helping behavior.
What is Extraversion characterized by?
Outgoing, sociable, assertive, and gregarious
Introversion is not shyness but a preference for less socializing.
Who introduced the concepts of Introversion and Extraversion in Psychology?
Carl Jung
Jung’s work in Analytical Psychology laid the foundation for these concepts.
What did Hans Eysenck propose about introverts?
Introverts have higher base levels of cortical arousal
This leads them to seek less environmental stimulation than extraverts.
What does research suggest about the inheritance of personality traits?
Identical twins tend to have more similar personalities, but shared family environment has little impact
Parental influence does not significantly affect offspring personality.
What characterizes someone high in Openness to Experience?
Curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, and interest in new ideas
Often related to more liberal attitudes and tolerance of diversity.
What is Neuroticism associated with?
Worry, insecurity, anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, and vulnerability
High neuroticism is linked to emotional instability.
What traits characterize someone high in Conscientiousness?
Diligence, well-organization, punctuality, and dependability
Associated with high levels of self-discipline.
What does the Dark Triad refer to?
A combination of three traits: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy
These traits lead to negative, antisocial behavioral tendencies.
Define Narcissism.
A personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance and a need for admiration
Often initially charming but can become arrogant and selfish over time.
What is Machiavellianism?
Enjoyment of and skill in manipulating others
Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who suggested unethical methods for acquiring power.
What characterizes Psychopathy?
Lack of empathy, impulsivity, and a parasitic lifestyle
High levels of indifference to others’ discomfort are a key trait.
What is Sadism in the context of the Dark Tetrad?
Deriving pleasure from the pain, suffering, or humiliation of others
Unlike the other traits, sadism involves a desire for cruelty.
What are the historical perspectives that shaped modern personality theory?
- Psychodynamic view (Sigmund Freud)
- Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner)
- Humanism (Carl Rogers)
- Biological/Genetic View (Hans Eysenck)
Each perspective contributes different insights into personality development.
What are the three major components of personality according to Freud?
- Id
- Ego
- Superego
These components interact to shape personality and behavior.
What does the Id represent in Freud’s theory?
The primitive, instinctive component of personality operating on the pleasure principle
It seeks immediate gratification of urges.
What is the Superego?
The moral component of personality that incorporates social standards for right and wrong
It develops from societal expectations learned during childhood.
What does the Ego do in Freud’s model?
Mediates between the Id and Superego and operates according to the reality principle
It seeks to satisfy urges in socially appropriate ways.
What are Freud’s levels of awareness?
- Conscious
- Pre-conscious
- Unconscious
These levels represent different degrees of awareness regarding thoughts and feelings.
What is a key criticism of Freud’s theories?
Many theories lack real-world evidence and are not scientifically testable
Most were based on non-representative samples, primarily his own patients.
What did B.F. Skinner contribute to personality theory?
A focus on observable behavior and the role of operant conditioning in shaping personality
He believed environmental consequences influence behavior responses.
What is Self-Efficacy according to Albert Bandura?
One’s belief about their ability to perform behaviors that lead to expected outcomes
High self-efficacy correlates with lower procrastination and better health behaviors.
What is the Phenomenological Approach in Humanism?
Understanding individuals’ personal, subjective experiences to comprehend their behavior
Emphasizes the importance of individual experiences and beliefs.
Define Self-Concept.
A collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior
Personality arises from an individual’s understanding of themselves.
What is Incongruence in Humanism?
The difference between self-concept and actual experiences
High incongruence can lead to psychological distress.
What does the Genetic/Biological View suggest about personality?
Personality traits have a genetic basis and are largely inherited
Hans Eysenck’s work supports this view.
What is the term for when individuals are unaware of their own lack of knowledge?
Cognitive biases about the self
What is the term that Rogers used to describe the difference between the self-concept and actual experiences?
Incongruence
What can a large amount of incongruence lead to?
Distress/anxieties and other problems with behaviour/cognition
Who was a key proponent of the idea of genetic predisposition to personality and behaviour?
Hans Eysenck
What does the biological view suggest about personality?
Personality is largely determined by evolutionary adaptations, the wiring of the brain, and heredity
What does genetic vulnerability refer to?
Disorders of personality arising from genetic factors activated by environmental influences
Define Social Psychology.
The branch of psychology concerned with how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by others
How does Social Psychology differ from Sociology?
Sociology studies societal groups and their interactions, while Social Psychology emphasizes the individual and small groups
What is the unit of analysis in focus groups in Social Psychology?
The group rather than the individual
What is the process of forming impressions of others called?
Person Perception
What cognitive shortcuts do we use in decision-making and person perception?
Heuristics
How does physical appearance influence person perception?
It heavily influences perceptions of others’ personalities and traits
According to Segal-Caspi et al (2012), attractive people are often viewed as being higher in which traits?
- Agreeableness
- Extraversion
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness
What is a schema?
A cognitive structure that allows us to organize the world around us
What do schemas allow people to do?
Categorize things based on past experiences and make decisions
What did Bartlett (1932) propose about knowledge structures?
They provide a way for us to organize and cluster similar, related pieces of knowledge
What is default knowledge in the context of schemas?
Knowledge about the most likely values for the attributes of a schema
Define Social Schema.
Organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people
What are stereotypes?
Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics due to their group membership
What types of stereotypes are most common?
- Age
- Sex/gender
- Ethnic groups
- Occupational groups
What is Confirmation Bias?
The tendency for people to process information in a way that reinforces their pre-existing beliefs
What is a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy?
When changes in our behaviour due to expectations make the expected outcomes more likely
What does evolutionary theory argue about categorizing people?
It comes from an evolutionary need to rapidly separate friend from foe
Define ingroup and outgroup.
- Ingroup: A group that one belongs to and identifies with
- Outgroup: A group that one does not belong to or identify with
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
The tendency for observers to favor internal attributions in explaining others’ behaviors
What are the two types of attributions described by Fritz Heider?
- Internal attributions
- External attributions
What is the Self-Serving Bias?
The tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors
What is Defensive Attribution?
The tendency to blame victims for their misfortunes
What are the two cultural components of attribution?
- Individualism
- Collectivism
In which cultures is the self-serving bias more prevalent?
Individualist cultures (e.g., North America/Western Europe)
What is the tendency of people when observing others’ behavior?
To attribute their behavior to internal factors rather than situational factors
