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Anatomy & Physiology 2 > Lecture 12: Development & Inheritance > Flashcards

Lecture 12: Development & Inheritance Flashcards

1
Q

You need estrogen and progesterone to…

A

maintain the endometrium.

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2
Q

The endometrium is what the embryo is surrounded by, if endometrium gets shed…

A

there’s no place for fetus to be implanted

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3
Q

Estrogen levels go up in the third trimester. This gives us the shift from…

A

hormonal effects that suppressing delivery and supporting gestation towards things that tend to favor delivery.

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4
Q

In 2nd trimester, the fetus grows faster than the placenta. What does this mean?

A

If the fetus is growing faster than the placenta, at some point, the placenta is going to limit the size of the fetus. There’s not enough surface area for exchange at the placenta to get all the nutrients in and all waste products out that the fetus has to deal with.

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5
Q

In the 3rd trimester, the fetus…

A

gains the most weight of the three trimesters. But, it’s gonna gain it more slowly. The percent in body weight won’t be as high.

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6
Q

The fundus of the uterus moves up and then drops. Fetus moves…

A

lower in the uterus to get down into the birth canal.

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7
Q

Maternal changes:

A
  • respiration goes up (breathing for two) ; need move enough o2 in and co2 to take care of mom and growing fetus
  • TV goes up (first 2 trimesters)
  • Maternal Blood Volume goes up (mom needs to maintain her own blood pressure and still send a sizable volume to the placenta)
  • Nutrient requirements go up (10-30% depending on where you are in gestation and how big the fetus is, having 1,2, or 3 fetus)
  • GFR goes up
  • Increase size uterus
  • Increase mammary gland size & activity
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8
Q

Mom is pregnant and a placenta is developed. Mom has to send blood to the placenta. What happens to mom’s systemic blood pressure?

A

It decreases. Her blood pressure drops and JG cells are gonna go “blood pressure is low”. You’re gonna activate RAAS and get more erythropoietin, more ADH, more Aldosterone, and make more blood.

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9
Q

Why does GFR need to go up?

A
  • Blood volume goes up
    -We now have to dispose mom’s waste products that are handled by the kidneys and fetus’ waste products.
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10
Q

Most women by the end of the 2nd trimester, their mammary glands produce…

A

clear secretions, not milk or colostrum. The equipment is working.

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11
Q

The first few stages of those ( 2, 4, 6, 8, 16) multiple of two cells are the…

A

zygote. Within a couple of days, then we transition into embryo.

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12
Q

As fetus starts growing, we get hypertrophy in myometrial cells. This muscle is…

A

getting stretched a lot more and we need it to not rupture. So we need those cells to hypertrophy.

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13
Q

By the time a woman gets to term, the length of the uterus will increase…

A

4x

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14
Q

The weight of the uterus will increase…

A

more than 32x. That counts the membranes and the fetus too

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15
Q

With all of those things there, you’re gonna talk about…

A

13.5 - 15.5 lbs of uterine weight.

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16
Q

We have have two terms in labor. They are…

A

False Labor and True Labor

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17
Q

False Labor is…

A

Muscle spasms of the uterus. Those spasms are not regular and not progressing.

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18
Q

There’s another name for this. It is…

A

Braxton Hicks contractions

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19
Q

True Labor is…

A

Have more organized contractions. The time between contractions will gradually decrease.

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20
Q

True Labor is going to be triggered by mechanical and chemical factors. What happens here in respect to the chemical factors is…

A

Start with the fetus. It starts to get cramped in the uterus and the fact the placenta is not big enough to support this fetus, the fetus gets stressed a little bit.

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21
Q

The fetus starts to release…

A

Oxytocin

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22
Q

The oxytocin released by the fetus is going to…

A

maternal blood and cause uterine smooth muscle contraction.

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23
Q

This is going to move the fetus closer to the cervix and get cervical stretch. This causes…

A

Oxytocin release

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24
Q

This is a positive feedback loop but to take advantage of it, we need some source of oxytocin to begin with. This is the

A

fetus

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25
Q

There is also things being released by the lungs of the fetus that affect…

A

the blood vessels in the placenta.

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26
Q

What is Parturition?

A

Forcible expulsion of the fetus.
(Fetus are expelled, they ARE NOT excreted)

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27
Q

There are 3 stages of labor. They are

A
  • Dilation Stage
  • Expulsion Stage
  • Placental Stage
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28
Q

The Dilation Stage is the onset of true labor. This is the stage where…

A

We start to get a little bit of cervical dilation and little bit of contractions. Fetus is being moved toward the cervical canal.

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29
Q

There is highly variable duration of the length of this first stage. Usually, last about at…

A

least 8 hours. But, if this is not a first time mother, depending on how close together their pregnancies were, this stage might be short.

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30
Q

Contractions comes every…

A

30 to 10 minutes. Frequency is increasing subtly which is why the time between is decreasing.

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31
Q

This is the stage where we should have rupture of membranes so that…

A

the fetus can pass into cervix.

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32
Q

The timing of rupture of membranes is important bc…

A

if you get rupture of membrane too early, then it can lead to an infection to the fetus. That infection can be life-threatening.

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33
Q

The next stage is Expulsion. In the expulsion stage, the cervix is dilated about…

A

10 cm

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34
Q

Contractions are happening for about…

A

every 2-3 minutes and lasting for a minute.

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35
Q

The expulsion stage lasts …

A

< 2 hours.

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36
Q

Last stage is the Placental Stage. After the baby has been delivered…

A

the placenta detaches from the uterine wall and placenta gets delivered as well.

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37
Q

There’s some maternal blood loss. Why would there be maternal blood loss?

A

When you remove the placenta, you still have open spiral arteries. There’s also still maternal blood in the placenta and there is not a way to get it all out.

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38
Q

Also you might have some smaller level of maternal blood loss because…

A

likely to be tearing around the vagina.

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39
Q

A uterus has been pregnant for 9-10 months is not going to…

A

instantaneously return to pre-pregnancy size. It will gradually decrease but it won’t get back to the size of a never pregnant uterus.

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40
Q

Premature labor is…

A

progressing labor b4 fetal development is over.

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41
Q

The one thing that is most important here is…

A

fetal weight at birth. Smaller fetus is = less likely to survive

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42
Q

Immature birth is…

A

progressing labor at the end of 2nd trimester (6 months)

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43
Q

Though medical technology is getting better, what we’re talking about is the fetus…

A

weighs about 500 grams, a pound or 2

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44
Q

What is going to be the problem for this baby?

A

The lungs are not going to be working well.

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45
Q

At this stage, the baby is not making or not making enough surfactant. So…

A

breathing in is gonna be a tremendous amount of work.

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46
Q

It’s also possible that the baby won’t have enough energy to latch onto feed. If you can’t feed, where are you getting the nutrient for all that work to breathe?

A

We do now have synthetic surfactant down an airway. As the baby has breathing movement, it helps to pull that in and distribute it.

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47
Q

Less recent treatments for pre-mature ( now considered, immature) deliveries, involve things like…

A

positive pressure respiration. So, instead of baby moving diaphragm down to pull air in, you use high pressure air to push it into airways to get it in the gas exchange areas.

48
Q

The problem with this is that it causes…

A

lung damage

49
Q

What you have to think about when providing care is we have…

A

medical technology that lets us do this, but what’s the cost going to be of the quality of life of that baby when we use it or we don’t?

50
Q

Premature Labor is going to be…

A

about 28-36 weeks of gestation.

The survival is likely bc the lungs work.

51
Q

What’s considered full term gestation is…

A

depend on when you’re carrying 1, 2, 3 babies.

52
Q

Twins are considered full term at 36 weeks bc…

A

if you have 2 fetus’ they both outgrow the placenta and that’s going to happen sooner.

53
Q

First stage of Postnatal Development is…

A

Neonatal Stage

54
Q

Neonatal stage is from…

A

birth to 1 month after delivery.

55
Q

This is all about…

A

Transitioning how physiology works in the uterus to how it works now as a separate independent organism.

56
Q

In this stage, the

A
  • heart rate is high bc the heart is small.
  • can’t concentrate urine
  • minimal ability to thermoregulate
57
Q

When you can’t concentrate urine, this means…

A

risks of dehydration bc always producing dilute urine.
It also means they can’t handle a lot of pure water.

58
Q

Why do they have minimal ability to thermoregulate?

A

They can’t direct blood toward or away from body surface yet to regulate internal temperature.

59
Q

Next stage of Postnatal stage is…

A

Infancy

60
Q

Infancy goes from…

A

1 month to 2 years old

61
Q

Here, we’re getting rapid growth. It’s under the control of growth hormone. What helps are

A

Adrenal steroids & cortisol helps mobilize glucose to give us fuel for growth.

62
Q

Thyroid hormone helps us…

A

elevate metabolic rate and a lot of that metabolism is going to be taking amino acids and making proteins and fatty acids, phosphoglycerides, phospholipids, or whatever it is we need.

63
Q

Infancy and Childhood have a lot in common. Growth hormone is going to be the main driver of growth in both cases. But, the thyroid hormone and adrenal cortical steroids are going to be important. Growth won’t be uniform. Not only will you have growth spurt, but…

A

sometimes leg grow and nothing else does. Sometimes head grows and nothing else does. The proportion to different parts of the body from one another is changing throughout.

64
Q

Next stage is going to be…

A

Adolescence

65
Q

Adolescence begins…

A

at puberty and start with growth spurt

66
Q

This growth spurt is gonna be under the control of…

A

estrogen for females and testosterone for males

67
Q

Then, growth will stop bc growth plates will close. Here, you will see…

A

GnRH goes up, FSH and LH levels go up

68
Q

This is the period we reach…

A

sexual maturity. The ability to reproduce successfully.

69
Q

Then we have another stage called…

A

Maturity
This is Adulthood.

70
Q

In maturity…

A

you stop growing, your reproductive hormones are at stable levels, not growing/shrinking,

71
Q

This stage is the coasting between…

A

getting to sexual maturity and having those parts not work anymore

72
Q

Next stage is…

A

Senescence

73
Q

In Senescence…

A
  • you start to lose muscle mass
  • gaining body fat
  • If female (going to or close to menopause)
    If male ( more gradual decline in testosterone)
74
Q

The drop of those reproductive hormones is…

A

what’s driving the loss of muscle mass and increase of body fat

75
Q

What else happens in Senescence?

A
  • Losing bone density
  • Losing receptors for taste and smell
  • Vision & Hearing might decline
76
Q

What is Genotype about?

A

your DNA and the nucleotides that make you up

77
Q

What is Phenotype about?

A

The physical and anatomical characteristics of you that we can see

78
Q

Bc humans are diploid, we have 2 copies of every chromosome. For example, when we’re talking about chromosome 2 and I have a gene located on chromosome 2, I have…

A

a copy of a gene that chromosome 2 I got from mom and a copy that I got from dad. They might be the same or different. Whether they’re the same or different is going to affect what you see.

79
Q

Genotype is the actual recipe and phenotype is

A

what the cookies look like when you pull them out of the oven

80
Q

We need to talk about patterns of inheritance. Since we’re diploid and we could have two of the same gene for something or 2 different ones, there are…

A

different ways for these things to interact.

81
Q

Ex of homologous chromosomes would be when we have chromosome 2. Each one of those chromosome 2 are homologous. They have the…

A

same type of info on them. They may not have the same exact info, but it’s about the same things.

82
Q

Karyotype is…

A

a map where we take somebody’s genes/ chromosomes and laid them out in the order that they have been numbered.

83
Q

There are 23 paired of chromosomes in a human cell. 1 - 22 have nothing to determine your sex. Those chromosomes are called

A

Autosomal

84
Q

The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes. What makes male and female?

A

XX = female
XY = male
YY= not gonna see you

85
Q

We have ppl with blue, green, or brown eyes. Each one of those is a trait. The gene that codes for that trait is…

A

an allele

86
Q

If I have 2 identical alleles for a particular trait, I am…

A

Homozygous in that trait

87
Q

Let’s say you only have blue eyes and you get that blue eyes from mom and blue eyed allele from dad, I…

A

would have to be homozygous in the blue eye allele.

88
Q

If I have two different alleles for a particular trait, then I would be…

A

heterozygous in that trait

89
Q

80% of genes in a human genome are gonna be…

A

homozygous. The difference between those are gonna come from those that are heterozygous.

90
Q

When talking about something that is strictly dominant, it means…

A

that if I have the dominant allele, that’s always what you’re gonna see.

91
Q

Let’s say that the brown eye allele is dominant and Lyora and one allele for brown eyes and one allele for blue eyes, we’re always gonna see brown eyes bc…

A

if you have the dominant allele, the dominant allele is always gonna be showing. It’s what’s always gonna be expressed. This is the phenotype you will have.

92
Q

The only time you would see the recessive allele in a situation of strict dominance is…

A

if you had 2 copies of the recessive allele.

93
Q

If brown eyes are strictly dominant, somebody who is homozygous for the brown allele, we call that…

A

Homozygous dominant.
They are going to have brown eyes.

94
Q

Somebody who is heterozygous, who has brown eye and another allele, they’re gonna…

A

have brown eyes.

95
Q

Somebody who’s homozygous recessive who has 2 of the recessive alleles are going to have…

A

blue eyes.

96
Q

When talking about homozygous from one end to the other, you need to talk about…

A

dominant or recessive. Heterozygous doesn’t have a dominant or recessive part of it’s name. Heterozygous means you have two alleles.

97
Q

Incomplete dominance, what you have is the interaction between…

A

the dominant allele and recessive allele that produces and in between condition.

98
Q

There’s an incomplete interaction between the dominant and recessive allele that’s …

A

in between state of what you see just the dominant or recessive allele was expressed.

99
Q

The third thing we have is codominance. In codominance we…

A

express both alleles.

100
Q

I give you type AB blood. Somebody that has type AB blood, has…

A

an allele for the A surface part antigen and allele for type B surface antigen and they both get expressed.

101
Q

A punnet square is…

A

a tool for predicting what you would see in a population

102
Q

There’s two types of punnet squares. The first one that we’re gonna do is a punnet square for autosomal chromosomes. Found for…

A

chromosomes 1-22. It doesn’t matter what the sex of the offspring is in here. For an autosomal punnet square, we do not include X or Y chromosomes.

103
Q

We do this with a trait like the “Doofus trait”. In Doofus trait, the capital D is the dominant trait. Lower case d is the recessive allele , not doofus. We need to know genotype of each of our parents for the doofus trait. Dad’s genotype is to the side and Mom’s genotype is on top. Ex: Prof Meyer’s dog is homozygous doofus and his gf is heterozygous doofus…

A

We can get DD = homozygous Doofus and Dd = heterozygous recessive. Now these are the genotypes for the offspring of these parents.

104
Q

What are we gonna see in the DD offspring? The phenotype is Doofus. This means…

A

if you breed these dogs and you breed them enough, half of them will be homozygous dominant in the Doofus allele, half of them will be heterozygous and every last one of their pups will be a doofus.

105
Q

When you are doing a punnet square for an autosomal trait, no X or Y chromosomes come up here. When you look at this karyotype, the X chromosome is big and Y chromosome is small. What this means is…

A

there are traits on the x chromosomes that aren’t on the Y chromosome. So, we’re not gonna have 2 alleles for everything on the X chromosome.

106
Q

If we’re talking about a situtaioon where the allele is on the X chromosome, now we’re talking about something that is…

A

sex linked OR X- linked ( means the same thing)

107
Q

These are situations where…

A

a sex of the offspring matters to what we see.

108
Q

Example:
R= red hair
r= no red hair
Mom is red hair heterozygous (Rr) on X chromosomes so we’re gonna include this only for things that are X linked or sex linked bc the sex is going to matter to what gets expressed. Dad has…

A

only has one copy, one allele of the red hair gene bc it’s on the X chromosome. He has one x and a y but it’s not on the y. We put a dash to remind us that he doesn’t have an allele for that thing on the y chromosome.

109
Q

You get an X & dominant allele from mom and X & dominant allele from dad this makes…

A

makes = XXRR which gives us a female red head.

110
Q

When you get X and recessive allele from mom and X and Dominant allele from dad, you get…

A

XXRr
Genotypically, this is a heterozygous female. Phenotypically, this is a female red head.

111
Q

You get an X and dominant allele in mom and a Y and nothing from dad. Since you only have one red headed allele from mom, it’s the only one that can be expressed. This will be…

A

a male red head.

112
Q

If you get X and a recessive allele from mom and Y and nothing from dad, you get…

A

male non-redhead. Bc i only have one copy of the allele, if i got a male, that has the allele that has to be expressed.

113
Q

If a mom is not colorblind but she’s heterozygous, her offspring, if they just get that recessive gene from her and don’t have anything from dad to cancel that out, …

A

then some of the kids will be colorblind.

114
Q

Remember, sex linked and autosomal are separate!! if not on chromosome 23, …

A

you use autosomal punnet square. Sex doesn’t matter.

115
Q

Only if you see in the question this it is a sex-linked trait or an x -linked trait we use…

A

the punnet square where we include the sex chromosomes. It will make a difference whether we talk about a male or female to what gets expressed.

Anatomy & Physiology 2 (17 decks)

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