Lecture 1 - Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology Flashcards

(60 cards)

1
Q

Cytology

A

study of cells

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2
Q

Histology

A

Study of tissues

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3
Q

Anatomy

A

study of structures (of body)

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4
Q

Physiology

A

Study of processes (of the body)

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5
Q

Metabolism

A

Sum of all chemical processes in body

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6
Q

Characteristics of death

A
  1. Loss of heartbeat
  2. Absence of breathing
  3. Loss of brain function
  4. No vital force (qi)
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7
Q

Homestasis

A

State of equilibrium, maintained by body’s own processes

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8
Q

Homestatic balance made up of:

A
  1. Core temperature (36.5 - 37.5 C)
  2. Water and electrolytes
  3. pH (acidity or alkalinity)
  4. Blood glucose levels (4-7 mmol/l)
  5. Blood and tissue O2/CO2 levels
  6. Blood pressure
  7. Flow of life force
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9
Q

Negative feedback

A

The output reverses the input

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10
Q

Positive feedback

A

Strengthens change in one of the body’s control system
Examples : childbirth, milk production

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11
Q

Body organisation (smallest to largest)

A

Atoms and molecules
Cells - smallest living units in the body
Tissues - group of cells working together to perform function
Organs - groups of tissues working together
Systems - related organs that have a common function
Organism - all body parts together
Vital Force - energy that creates life

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12
Q

4 body cavities

A
  1. Cranial
  2. Thoracic
  3. Abdominal
  4. Pelvic
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13
Q

What is the Cell Theory

A
  • Cell - structural and functional unit of all living things
  • All cells come from pre-existing cells - cell division
  • Cells contain hereditary information
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14
Q

Oxidative stress

A
  • Imbalance free radicals and antioxidants
  • Free radicals - highly unstable and reactive, lack electron in atomic structure which can be donated by anti-oxidants
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15
Q

Prokaryotic cells

A
  • No nucleus
  • No membrane-bound organelles
  • Cell wall
  • Cell division - binary fission (rapid mitosis)
  • Example - bacteria
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16
Q

Eukaryotic cell

A
  • Membrane-bound nucleus
  • Many membrane-bound organelles
  • Cell wall - only present in plants/fungi
  • Cell division - involves mitosis
  • Examples - human/animal cells, plant/fungi
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17
Q

Cytosol

A

Basic watery fluid within the cell

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18
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Cell content excluding the nucleus (includes cytosol and organelles)

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19
Q

Phospholipid bilayer

A
  • 2 layers - phosphate and lipid molecules
  • Form the cell membrane
  • Hydrophobic lipid ends - face inward - (tails on inside)
  • Hydrophilic phosphate heads f- acing outward - (heads on outside)
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20
Q

3 functions transmembrane proteins

A
  1. Transport of substances in and out of cell
  2. Immunological identity
  3. Receptors (hormones)
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21
Q

Cell junctions - 2 types

A
  1. Tight junctions - stomach, intestines, bladder (prevent leakage)
  2. Gap junctions - small fluid-filled tunnels - nerves
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22
Q

Nucleus

A
  • All body cells have nucleus EXCEPT RBCs (max oxygen carrying)
  • Controls all cell functions
  • Nucleolus produces RNA
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23
Q

What do Chromosomes contain

A

DNA

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24
Q

Genes

A
  • Subsections of DNA that act as instructions to make proteins
  • Located along chromosomes
  • Thousands per chromosome
  • All body cells (somatic cells) contain the full genome (full set of genes)
  • One gene codes for the production of 1 protein
  • Genes are switched on depending on each cell’s job
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25
Cytoskeleton
SCAFFOLDING 1. Cell movement 2. Physical support and shape 3. Cell division - move chromosomes apart
26
Mitochondria
POWER PLANT * Second largest organelle, ‘bean-shaped’ * ‘Cell powerhouse’ - generate ATP * Near periphery of cell - oxygen enters
27
Which cells contain the most mitochondria?
Muscle cells - need energy
28
Aerobic respiration
Process by which mitochondria uses oxygen and nutrients (glucose) to create ATP ## Footnote **Glucose + oxygen ⇒ carbon dioxide + water + ATP**
29
Ribosomes
FACTORY * Site of protein synthesis * High RNA * **Mobile** - make protein for inside of cell * **Stationary** - in endoplasmic reticulum * make protein for outside the cell * Synthesise and export proteins for specific organelles
30
Rough ER - (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
SUPPORT TO FACTORY * Continuous with nuclear membrane * Studded with ribosomes * Syntheses and transports protein
31
Smooth ER
* No ribosomes * Contains enzymes * Synthesises lips and steroid hormones (e.g. oestrogen)
32
ORGANELLE - Golgi Apparatus
POST OFFICE * Modifies, sorts, packages and transports … * proteins received from rough ER
33
Lysosomes
* Recycle worn-out organelles * Digest foreign cells
34
Mitosis
* Cell division * two cells **identical** to the mother * Growth and repair * Duplication of a full set of chromosomes
35
Meiosis
* Cell division of gametes * Produces 4 _non-identical_ **haploid** cells through 2 divisions * Genetic variability
36
Cell Reproduction - Meiosis
**Ovum** + **sperm** ⇒ **zygote** **Zygote** ⇒ mitosis ⇒ embryo ⇒ foetus (after 8 weeks)
37
Mutation
* Change in the genetic sequence * DNA consists of sequences of 4 amino acids (A,T,C,G) * Mutations in gametes are passed on to offspring * Mutations in somatic cells cannot be inherited * Mutations can be induced by: smoking, radiation, vaccines
38
2 Phases of protein synthesis
* **Transcription** * copy of one gene is made into mRNA * travels out of nucleus to a ribosome * **Translation** * ribosome reads the code * produces chain of amino acids * forms protein
39
Passive Transport
_high to low_ concentration (**down the concentration gradient)**
40
Active Transport
Movement of substances from _low to high_ concentration (**up the concentration gradient**). Requires ATP. 1. **Pumps** - protein pump in the cell membrane to transport specific substances (e.g. sodium-potassium pump) 2. **Endocytosis** - engulfing particles in the cell through cell membrane extensions 3. **Exocytosis** - removal of waste from the cell
41
Tissue - 4 types
1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous
42
What is a gland? 2 types of epithelial tissue glands
produce **secretions** **Exocrine** glands - secrete product into _ducts_, e.g. milk, saliva, sebum, sweat, enzymes **Endocrine** glands - enter interstitial tissue and _diffuse into blood_. These glands produce _hormones_.
43
Connective tissue - formed of:
1. **Extracellular matrix** - _Ground substance_ - _Protein fibres_ - collagen and elastic. Produced by fibroblasts. 1. **Cells** Widely spaced (unlike epithelium). Synthesise the protein fibres, white blood cells and fat cells
44
Connective Tissues: Cells
1. **Fibroblasts** 1. Large and most numerous cells 2. Secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres. 3. Active in healing and repair 2. **Adipocytes** 1. Store triglycerides (fat) 3. **White Blood Cells (leukocytes)** 1. _Macrophages_ - engulf foreign cells (phagocytes) 2. _Lymphocytes_ - produce antibodies 3. _Mast cells_ - release inflammatory chemicals
45
Connective Tissue : functions
1. **Structural** framework (bone cartilage) 2. **Transport** nutrients and wastes (blood) 3. **Protection** for vital organs (bone, adipose) 4. **Support** and interconnection (tendons, ligaments,) 5. **Insulation** (adipose tissue) 6. **Energy** store 7. Production of **blood** and **lymphatic cells** (adipose tissue, bone marrow) 8. **Defence and repair** (blood, lymph)
46
Membranes 4 types
Flat sheets that cover or line areas of the body Combine epithelial and connective tissue 1. Cutaneous (skin) 2. Mucous 3. Serous (thin watery fluid) 4. Synovial (lubricating fluid in joints)
47
Mucous membranes
* Line the digestive, respiratory and genito-urinary tracts * **Globlet cells** secrete mucous - protect and trap foreign particles
48
Serous Membranes
* Line body cavities * do _not_ open to exterior * Double-layered: * Inner ‘visceral layer' - surrounds organs * Outer ‘parietal layer’ - lines a cavity * Serous fluid - between layers - allows organ to glide freely * Location - * Pericardium - surrounding the heart * Pleura - lining thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs * Peritoneum - lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding abdominal organs
49
Function of phospholipid bilayer
Control flow of substances in and out of cells
50
How many chromosomes body cells (not gametes)
46 (23 pairs)
51
What are somatic cells?
Normal body cells
52
What are sex cells called?
Gametes
53
What are genes?
Hereditary units arranged along chromosomes
54
Diffusion
movement of small substances from _high to low_ concentration
55
Osmosis
Passive movement of water
56
Facilitated diffusion
* movement of larger substances from high to low gradient * facilitated by transmembrane proteins
57
Epithelial tissue
* tightly packed cells * skin, digestive tract, heart, lungs
58
Connective tissue
* most abundant * bone, cartilage, blood
59
Muscular tissue
Contracts for movement
60
Nervous tissue
transmits electrical signals around body