Learning and Reward

Question 1

what are the main learning theories/ questions?

Answer 1

1. how is classical conditioning (paired associated) different from operant conditioning (punishment/reward)?
2. the social learning question: how does watching others influence learning?
3. how is learning influenced by the biology of reward?
4. how does learning occur on a neuron level?

Question 2

what are the distinctions between the studies of watson, pavlov, skinner, and bandura?

Answer 2

pavlov = classical conditioning

watson= “behaviorism,” classical conditioning “little albert” - can turn anybody into anything? based on idea of “blank state” (ex. babies)

skinner = operant conditioning

bandura = social learning

Question 3

how is classic conditioning different from operant conditioning?

Answer 3

CC organism is passive/ OC organism is active

CC responses are reflexes/ OC responses are voluntary

CC responses are elicited/ OC responses are emitted

CC reinforcement is unrelated to learning the association (2 things are paired together - ex. startled when hearing a noise)/ OC reinforcement is contingent on desired response (rewards)

Question 4

What are the basic concepts in classical conditioning?

Answer 4

associative learning - neutral stimulus can produce reflexive behavior

stimulus substitution - stimuli are associated and one comes to substitute for another

learning becomes more complex

Question 5

what were the different components in pavlov’s dog research? what occured?

Answer 5

US = unlearned stimulus (food)

UR = unlearned response (salivate)

the US automatically elicits the UR (reflex) - natural, nothing was conditioned

when conditioning occured- learning occured…

CS = conditioned/learned stimulus (bell)

CR= conditioned/learned response (salivate to the bell)

no longer need US to get what was UR (salivating) - bell predicts meat - conditioned response

Question 6

what happens with conditioning?

Answer 6

CS (previously neutral stimulus) is PAIRED repeatedly with the US

over trials (temporal pairings), the CS comes to automatically elicit a response (CR) that closely resembles the UCR

CR is not identical to the UR reflex - similar in form but not as strong

it is a learned automatic associative response with similar form to UR

*has to be temporal pairing (happens right in a row of something)

Question 7

what is stimulus generalization?

Answer 7

generalizing among stimuli

ex. dogs associating meat with researcher paired with white coat, coming in at a certain time, etc and then start to drool

Question 8

once a stimulus acquired conditioned properties through stimulus substitution, what happens?

Answer 8

the brain learns

can have stimulus generalization, discrimination, and extinction

Question 9

what is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 9

discriminating among stimuli

Question 10

what is extinction?

Answer 10

extinguishing learned associations

ex. when they ring a bell and don’t come in with meat, they will slowly start to stop salivating until it becomes unlearned again

Question 11

when signaling stimulus occurs without the actual thing being showed, what has happened?

Answer 11

condition is learned

Question 12

Who is john watson? what did he apply in his research?

Answer 12

researched the case of little albert

applied pavlov’s associative learning (classical conditioning) to albert’s emotional learning of fear

discovered that we can learn emotional responses

Question 13

what were the different effects of conditioning on little albert?

Answer 13

before conditioning

US = noise and UR =crying (fear/startled)

during conditioning

US paired with UR + CS (white rat)

after conditioning

CR (fearful crying) > CS (white rat)

cries with just seeing the rat and not hearing the noise, led to question - is this why phobias are learned?, stimulus generalization was learned with other furry white animals

Question 14

how were the CC principles - stimulus substitution, generalization, discrimination, and extinction - presented in the case of little albert?

Answer 14

stimulus substitution? noise for rat

stimulus generalization? was afraid of other animals (rabit, dog, fur coat, etc)

stimulus discrimination? wasn’t afriad of larger animals/ non white animals

extinction? would have to make little albert unlearn his fears, present it in a relaxing manner

Question 15

what are mower’s 2 factor theory of avoidance learning?

Answer 15

1. classical conditioning - conditioned to fear something (CS)
   ex. developing fear - paired rat with noise led to fear of the rat
2. operant conditioning (instrumental)

the individual learns a response to get away from CS

this is an operant conditioning process - avoiding the CS (fear) involves negative reinforcement (removal of negative experience i.e. fear)

ex. plane - never go on a plane again and avoid it in a non fear state therefore you will never unlearn/ extinguish fear because of avoidance - strengthens fear

Question 16

what is reinforcement in relationship to fears?

Answer 16

avoidance responses are strengthened and this strengthing is “reinforcement”

all reinfocement involves an increase in the behavior preceding it (avoidance)

Question 17

how is fear maintained?

Answer 17

thorugh operant conditioning

extinction to CS (feared stimuli) never happens

Question 18

what are some examples of classical conditioning?

Answer 18

salivating in response to thought of food

sexual interests

drug overdoses

coaine and money pairing

smoking - craving develops in certain contexts

advertising - get people to buy products and get positive responses (ex. corona and beach imagery)

anticipatory nausea - cancer patients in hospitals in response to chemo (anticipating their feelings)

Question 19

what is systematic desensitization?

Answer 19

treatment for phobias

the undoing process

Question 20

do phobias and addictions have learned components?

Answer 20

YES

counter conditioning - bring up fear and then having an individual learn to be relaxed (unlearning pairing of fear and object)

systematic desensitization - CS/CR 1 (fear) > CS/CR 2 (relaxation)

Question 21

how does classical conditioning work with sexual arousal?

Answer 21

US = erotic imagery > UR= arousal

CS = previously neutral (ex. shoes) > CR= sexual arousal to CS

independent arousal to shoes > shoe fetish

can treat by unlearning

Question 22

how does classical conditioning work with drug tolerance?

Answer 22

classical conditioning - body adjusting to effects of drugs

conditioned to stimuli that normally precedes drug use - causes a physiological response that helps the body prepare for the drug

*therefore many overdoses happen because they are taking usual drug dose in a different location

Question 23

what are the effects of emotional learning?

Answer 23

postive and negative emotions are acquired - some associative process - form connections

CER (conditioned emotional response)

emotionally changed conditional response elicited by a previous neutral stimulus

ex. police cars, 9/11, ocean and jaws, foods like/ hated, music, smells, people, etc

Question 24

what are phobias? what do they involve?

Answer 24

classified under anxiety disorders

involve panic attacks typically if exposed to feared situation (intense fear response)

some examples…

agoraphobia - fear panic attacks, therefore making an individual avoid many situations

social phobia - thinking people look at you negatively and therefore you don’t want to interact with others

specific phobias like heights, snakes, closed spaces, etc.

Question 25

how does virtual therapy for fears help? (video example)

Answer 25

man deathly afraid of heights virtually went down an elevator, crossed a bridge, and went on a plane after treatment he could go up the elevator \*must be exposed to worst fears in order in overcome fears and learn how to be unafraid in situations

Question 26

what is systematic desensitization?

Answer 26

a "cognitive -behavioral" method of treatment for phobias using the principle of "counterconditioning" SD takes classical conditioning into realm of cognition visual imagery and mental associations are actively engaged overrides learned response

Question 27

what is counterconditioning?

Answer 27

a CC procedure for weakening a CR by associating the CS (fear-producing stimulus) with a new response incompatible with the fear an SD technique

Question 28

how is counterconditioning performed?

Answer 28

1. the therapist, with the client, develops a hierarchy of feared situations ex. CS's (seeing picutres of snakes to napping with a boa around your neck) - lowest to hights fears 2. person is taught relaxation and coping imagery and skills 3. then, client applies learned skills while imagining CS's

Question 29

how does SD work?

Answer 29

pair new and incompatible responses (relaxation, normal breathing, coping thoughts/images, voluntary parasympathetic activity in general) with images of CS's leads to _new CS-CR associations_ over trials, called "higher-order conditioning" _extinction_ processes involves learning fear-inhibition behaviors via counterconditioning

Question 30

what happens when phobic indiviuals practice SD? what is the result?

Answer 30

conditioned fear (a CR) is counterconditioned by newly developed incompatible responses practice involves repeated trials (this is form of pairings of stimuli) result - diminishment of fear achieved through an increases of capacity and motivation for active coping/management of anxiety-producing situations

Question 31

what are fundamental to behavioral change?

Answer 31

exposure and extinction as a result of SD in classical conditioning terms - breaking old associative bonds (CS/UCS relations) through exposure to CS, extinction, and re-conditioning leads to learning of new associative bonds

Question 32

what is an example of desensitization?

Answer 32

snake phobic irrational fear is cured after a few sessions he can come in, see snake, and touch it

Question 33

what is flooding?

Answer 33

a technique used for desenitization where you are overwhelmed and exposed to what you're afraid of all at the same time to the point where your fear is exhausted used rarely (if you can't get down to relaxed state, it will just elevate your fear)

Question 34

how is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

Answer 34

"operant" is skinner's word for behavior that operates on the environment, that have effects which are "instrumental" in producing desired results instrumental learning = operant conditioning

Question 35

what is skinner's philosophy?

Answer 35

consequences of behavior determine the probability that the behavior will occur again

Question 36

what brain process does operant conditioning rely on?

Answer 36

dopamine based reward system centered in the nucleus accumbens ex. drugs and gambling

Question 37

what part of the brain does classical conditioning rely on?

Answer 37

the amygdala | (for fear)

Question 38

what are the basic concepts in operant conditioning?

Answer 38

reinforcement, punishment positive and negative reinforcement shaping schedules of reinforcement and their effects on learning

Question 39

what does reinfocement do to behavior?

Answer 39

it INCREASES or strengthens the probability of behavior both positive and negative reinforcers

Question 40

what is a reinforcer?

Answer 40

any stimulus that increases/strengthens the behavior which precedes it

Question 41

what experiments did skinner perform?

Answer 41

built on thornike's law of effect and coined the term "reinforcer" he used the "skinner box" to illustrate "shaping" - the pigeons were trained animals that were shaped by rewarding the pigeon step by step (eventually turned in a full circle to get food)

Question 42

what types of reinforcers can there be?

Answer 42

primary - food/ water/ basic needs secondary - money, good grade, compliment

Question 43

what is positive reinforcement?

Answer 43

when a plesant/ positive stimulus follows a behavior and strengthens it ex. something nice - like a compliment

Question 44

what is negative reinforcement?

Answer 44

negative reinforcer - removal of an aversive stimulus leads to an increase in the behavior that preceded the removal of the negative stimulus SUBTRACTION of something negative ex. stopping electric shock or walking the stairs if afraid of elevator (removal of fear)

Question 45

what is punishment do? how do positive and negative reinforcement effect chances of behavior?

Answer 45

punishment REDUCES the probability of behavior positive reinforcement (reward) INCREASES chances of behavior negative reinforcement INCREASES behavior by removing aversive stimuli ex. kid is forced to sit in the nurse's office when he misbehaves - if not reducing the behavior NOT punishment although you think it is neg - removed from class and his fears/ things he dislikes pos - likes going to the office

Question 46

what is positive punishment?

Answer 46

decreases behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus presenting with something negative ex. hitting/spanking/fining

Question 47

what is negative punishment?

Answer 47

decreases the probability of behavior by removing a positive stimulus SUBTRACTING something liked ex. taking away license

Question 48

what is effective in parental punishment?

Answer 48

reinforcement is the best way to change behavior rewarding positive behavior is better than punishment (when perform bad actions, not caught all the time)

Question 49

what are the schedules of reinforcement? what type of conditioning does this influence?

Answer 49

operant conditioning fixed schedules (fixed ratio and interval) = predicatable/ known ex. ratio - every 5th box filled (based on number of times) interval - scheduled exams (based on time) - study inconsistently and then more when it approches variable schedules (variable ratio and interval) - don't know ex. ratio - slot machines - hardest to extinguish, how addictive behaviors start "next time will pay off" mentality interval - pop quizes (have to study consistently)

Question 50

what are raito schedules based on?

Answer 50

units of behavior and produce fast learning

Question 51

what are interval schedules based on?

Answer 51

units of time and produce slower learning

Question 52

what does continous reinforcement create? what type of reinforcement is more common?

Answer 52

fast learning BUT is rare in the real world usually done when you are 1st leanring something (best way to learn) - ex. potty training has rewards until it is learned partial reinforcement = more common most behavior is reinforced only intermittently (start slwing down reinforcement once learned)

Question 53

what is the difference between fixed and variable schedules?

Answer 53

fixed schedules are invariant variable schedules are unpredictable

Question 54

what does behavioral persistence result from?

Answer 54

the "partial-reinforcement extinction effect"

Question 55

what is an animal and coaching teaching tip?

Answer 55

start with fixed ratio 1:1 then "fade" to partial schedules with increasingly infrequent reinforcement \*do with people with autism/ other problems as well

Question 56

what gives positive stimulus?

Answer 56

positive reinforcement

Question 57

what takes away negative stimulus?

Answer 57

negative reinforcement

Question 58

what gives negative stimulus?

Answer 58

positive punishment

Question 59

what takes away positive stimulus?

Answer 59

negative punishment

Question 60

if you have alcohol to feel relax/ rewarded or to have fun with friends what kind of stimulus is this?

Answer 60

positive reinforcement

Question 61

what are negative reinforcers for the following... anxiety headaches

Answer 61

anxiety - washing hands or staying home to reduce anxiety headaches - taking aspirin

Question 62

if you have alcohol to take away anxiousness/ anger what kind of response is this?

Answer 62

negative reinforcement

Question 63

what is the fundamental idea of punishment? what is a punisher

Answer 63

weakening or reducing the probability of behavior punisher: any stimulus that weakens the strength of, or reduces the probability of a behavior ex. shock, social disapproval

Question 64

a parent gives a whining child candy and then the child hugs the parent. what behavior is negatively/ positively reinforced for the parent? what is positively reinforced for the child? what are the effects?

Answer 64

parent: negative = taking away whining positive = receiving hug (whining is the "aversive" stimulus," then identify the removed aversive stimulus that is likely to increase in frequency - hug) kid: positive = receiving candy effects = kid more likely to whine because it was positively reinforced (intermitent ratio schedule) - once done, hard to stop

Question 65

the "overjustification effect" - why is external reward used?

Answer 65

it can change likelihood of engaging in behavior by changing MEANING something already meaningful - now add an external reward (ex. adding trophies to soccer games or paying people for volunteering) risk = changing meaning so you are not doing something just to do it

Question 66

what is the social learning theory?

Answer 66

focuses on the importance of observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emotions learning involves cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences

Question 67

what was Bandura's study?

Answer 67

bobo doll when the bobo doll was punched by/ kicked/ etc. by a woman - watched by kids exposure led to kid's aggressive behavior through modeling kid's without exposure performed no violence \*\*learn aggression through modeling (more likely to engage in behavior)

Question 68

what were the statistics of the Bandura study?

Answer 68

experimental groups: (out of 16) aggressive model rewarded = 15 aggressive model punished = 8 control groups: non-aggressive model =7 no model = 5

Question 69

what did bandura's studies prove?

Answer 69

proved to social learning theorists that direct reinforcement and punishment is unnecessary for learning we do not need to be shaped directly - our behavior is influenced by observational learning and cognitive processes \* we DO learn through modeling and observation

Question 70

what did bandura's study teach? we can learn through which manner?

Answer 70

observational learning is powerfully adaptive suggests aggression, fear, and other emotions are learned ex. parent afraid of dogs leads to a child's fear can teach through demonstration

Question 71

what did bandura's study teach in relation to phobias?

Answer 71

a child that is afraid of a dog but able to observe a child playing with a dog will significantly reduce child's fear of dog implication = phobias respond to social process

Question 72

how are mirror neurons used during observational learning?

Answer 72

activated when we observe someone engage in a behavior same neurons as if engaged in activity themselves may help learn by observation

Question 73

how is dopamine involved in learning/reward?

Answer 73

involved in motivation/emotion - biologically make activity rewarding and meaningful crucial for positive reinforcement - operant conditioning abscence reduces drive/motor control (ex. people who take antagonists block response and make people less happy)

Question 74

how does the brain function in learning/reward? what primary and secondary causes increase reward?

Answer 74

experience of pleasure results from activation of dopamine neurons in the nucleus accumbens (limbic system) amphetamine, cocaine increase dopamine (primary) money, grades, other rewards (secondary) also activate dopamine systems - rely on dopamine

Question 75

what is the biological basis of reward?

Answer 75

self-stimulation is a model of reward dopamine signals reward

Question 76

what experiment involved the biological basis of reward?

Answer 76

intercranial self-stimulation used when a rat turned on a light electrode was implanted in the nucleus accumben (activated dopamine resceptors) made it pleasureable and rewarding

Question 77

what does the ICSS activate? what does interfering do?

Answer 77

ICSS activates dopamine receptors nucleus accumbens are therefore activated interfering with dopamine eliminates ICSS and other naturally motivated behaviors so things become less pleasureable

Question 78

how does learning occur at the neuronal level?

Answer 78

1948 - donald hebb postulated that learning results form alterations in synaptic connections "cells that fire together wire together" synapses alter based on use increase in activity leads to increase in synapses/connections/neurons activated in the brain things that seem very natural have seemless connections (use these connections a lot)

Question 79

what is habituation? how does if affect behavioral response?

Answer 79

a DECREASE in behavioral response follows repeated exposure to non-threatening stimuli orient to something and neurons quit firing and don't activate STOP pre-synaptic release of neurotransmitters

Question 80

what is sensitization? how does it affect behavioral response?

Answer 80

an INCREASE in behavioral response follows exposures to a threatening situation (neurons fire more often) INCREASE pre-synaptic release of neurotransmitters

Question 81

if a dog salivates when it receives food and then a can opener is used and the dog salivates just at the sound of the can opener... what is the US? what is the UR?

Answer 81

US= food UR= salivation

Question 82

if a puppy is rewarded for all processes of rolling over until it completely rolls over, what is this process?

Answer 82

shaping | (opernant conditioning)

Question 83

if judy does not steal cookies because she sees her brother get punished by her dad, what is the reaction?

Answer 83

vicarious learning

Question 84

what is the neuron associated with reward?

Answer 84

dopamine

Question 85

what happens when sensitization occurs?

Answer 85

increases release of neurotransmitters