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Behavioural sciences > Learning And Memory > Flashcards

Learning And Memory Flashcards

1
Q

The way in which we acquire new behaviours

A

Learning

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2
Q

What is the basis of all behavioural learning

A

Stimulus and response

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3
Q

Habituation

A

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response

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4
Q

Dishabituation

A

Recovery of a response to a stimulus - a second stimulus is usually presented which interrupts the process - it is always temporary and refers to a change in response to the original stimulus, not the new one

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5
Q

Associative learning

A

Creating of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behaviour and a response
Eg. Classical and operant

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6
Q

Takes advantage of biological and instinctual responses to create association between two unrelated stimuli

A

Classical conditioning

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7
Q

Give an example of classical conditioning

A

Ivan Pavlov and his experiment with dogs, bells, food and salivation

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8
Q

A stimulus that brings about a reflexive physiological response is an ________ stimulus and the innate or reflexive response it causes is an _________ response

A

Unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response

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9
Q

Stimuli that that do NOT produce a reflexive response are known as

A

Neutral stimuli

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10
Q

A normally neutral stimulus that through association can cause a reflexive response

A

Conditioned stimuli

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11
Q

A response that is turned reflexive through association

A

Conditioned response

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12
Q

Taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

A

Acquisition or classical conditioning

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13
Q 
Using Pavlov’s experiment what is is the:
Unconditioned stimulus 
Unconditioned response
Neutral stimuli 
Conditioned stimuli 
Conditioned response
A 
US - food
UR - salivation 
NS - bell
CS - bell
CR - salivation
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14
Q

How do you tell conditioned and unconditioned responses apart

A

You need to look at the stimulus - that is what actually changed - US will cause UR and CS will cause CR

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15
Q

If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times the organism can be come habituated to the conditioned stimulus.

A

Extinction

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16
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented a weak conditional response may be exhibited

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17
Q

A broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also product the conditioned response

A

Generalization

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18
Q

Discrimination

A

Opposite to generalization - an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

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19
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Links voluntary behaviour wit consequences in an effort to alter frequency of those behaviours

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20
Q

Behaviourism

A

Theory by BF Skinner that all behaviours are conditioned

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21
Q

Thee process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behaviour

A

Reinforcement

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22
Q

Positive reinforcer

A

Increase a behaviour by adding a positive consequence or incentive following a desired behaviour

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23
Q

Negative reinforcer

A

Increases the frequency of a behaviour by removing something unpleasant

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24
Q

Role of a behaviour is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists

A

Escape learning - type of negative reinforcer

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25
Q

Used to prevent the unpleasantness of something yet to happen

A

Avoidance learning - type of negative reinforcer

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26
Q

Conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behaviour

A

Punishment

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27
Q

Positive punishment

A

Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behaviour to reduce it

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28
Q

Negative punishment

A

Reduction of a behaviour when a stimulus is removed . Eg. Punishing by not letting a child watch TV

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29
Q

Reinforces a behaviour after a specific number of performances of that behaviour

A

Fixed ration (FR) schedule

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30
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

A fixed ratio schedule where behaviour is rewarded every time it is performed

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31
Q

Reinforces a behaviour after a varying number of behaviour but such that the average number of performances to receive the reward is similar

A

Variable ratio( VR) schedules

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32
Q

Reinforces the first instance of behaviour after a certain amount of time has elapsed

A

Fixed interval (FI) schedules

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33
Q

Reinforces the first time a behaviour is performed after a varying interval of time

A

Variable interval (VI) schedule

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34
Q

Which schedules work the fastest and are the most resistance to extinction

A

Variable ratio

VR > FR > VI > FI

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35
Q

Which schedules will have a brief moment of no response after a behaviour is reinforced

A

FR and FI

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36
Q

What time of reinforcement schedule is gambling

A

Variable - ratio

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37
Q

The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviours (allows us to train complicated behaviour )

A

Shaping

38
Q

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

A

Latent learning

39
Q

Problem solving

A

Avoiding trial and error learning by taking a step back , observing the situation and taking decisive action to solve the challenges they face

40
Q

Being predisposed to learn or not learn a behaviour based on natural abilities and instincts

A

Preparedness

41
Q

Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviours

A

Instinctive drift

42
Q

Learning a new behaviour or gathering information by watching others

A

Observational learning
Eg. Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
** observational learning is not simply imitation because it can be used to teach individuals to avoid behaviour eg by seeing someone get punished

43
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that action
Largely involved in motor processes but also used with empathy and seen in imitative learning in primates

44
Q

Observational learning through _______ is an important factor in determining an individuals behaviour throughout his or her lifetime

A

Modeling

45
Q

How we gain the knowledge that we accumulate over a lifetime

A

Memory

46
Q

What are the three major processes in formation of memories

A

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

47
Q

Encoding

A

The process of putting new information into memory

48
Q

Information that is gained without effort

A

Automatic processing

49
Q

Actively working to get information or to memorize information

A

Controlled/effort full processing

With practice controlled processing can become automatic

50
Q

What are three types of encoding and how strong are they?

A

Visual (weakest), acoustic, and semantic (strongest)

51
Q

Semantic encoding

A

Putting something into a meaningful context wrt our own lives - works even better if vivid context

52
Q

Self-reference effect

A

We tend to recall information best when we put it into context of our own lives

53
Q

Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory to prevent forgetting or to store in short term and eventually long term

A

Maintenance rehearsal

54
Q

Mnemonic

A

Way to memorize information using acronyms or rhyming phrases - provides vivid organization

55
Q

Associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

A

Method of loci - type of mnemonic technique

56
Q

Associates numbers with items that rhyme or resemble the numbers

A

Peg-word system

57
Q

Method of loci and peg-word are most useful for memorizing

A

Large lists of objects in order

58
Q

Taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

A

Chunking or clustering

59
Q

Sensory memory

A

First and most fleeting kind of memory storage - generally lasts only a short period of time - under a second
Can be both iconic (visual ) and echoic (auditory )
Whole vs partial report

60
Q

Short term memory

A

Fades quickly without rehearsal - usually over 30 seconds
Limited in capacity - usually limited to 7 +/- 2 items
Capacity can be increased by clustering and duration can be extended by using maintenance rehearsal

61
Q

Working memory

A

Allows us to manipulate bits of short term memory by integrating it with attention and executive function - this allows us to do simple math in our heads

62
Q

Long term memory

A

Short term memory moved here with enough rehearsal - limitless

63
Q

Association of information to knowledge already stored in long term memory

A

Elaborative rehearsal

64
Q

What are the two types of long term memory

A

Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) - skills and conditioned responses
Explicit (declarative ) memories that require conscious recall

65
Q

What are the two types of explicit memory

A

Semantic (facts we know) and episodic (our experiences)

66
Q

Process of demonstrating that something has been learned or retained

A

Retrieval

Can be recall or reorganizing or quickly relearning information

67
Q

Process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned

A

Recognition - far easier than recall

68
Q

The longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning the greater the retention of information later on

A

Spacing effect

69
Q

Semantic network

A

Network of interconnected ideas that are linked together based on similar meaning

70
Q

Spreading activation

A

When one node of our semantic network is activated other linked concepts are also unconsciously activated

71
Q

Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

A

Priming

72
Q

Memory is aided by being in the physical location where the encoding took place

A

Context effects (type of retrieval cue)

73
Q

A persons mental state can also affect recall

A

State dependant memory (a type of retrieval cue)

74
Q

Serial position effect

A

A retrieval cue when learning lists - primacy and recency effects (tenancy to remember first and last parts but not middle)
Recency fades before primacy as it was most likely just in short term memory on initial recall

75
Q

A degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons linking to hippocampus

A 
Alzheimer’s disease 
Progressive dementia (loss of cognitive function) and memory loss with atrophy of the brain
76
Q

Alzheimer’s tends to proceed in a _____ fashion where we lose ______ first

A

Retrograde - lost recent memories before distance ones

77
Q

What are the microscopic findings of Alzheimer’s

A

Neurofibrillary tangles and B amyloid plaques

78
Q

A phenomenon in middle to late stage Alzheimer’s where there is an increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening

A

Sundowning

79
Q

Memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency

A

Korsakoff’s syndrome

80
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome is marked by

A

Retrograde amnesia (loss of old memories), anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) and confabulation (process of creating vivid fabricated memories in an attempt to fill in gaps of missing memories)

81
Q

Loss of ability to recognize objects, people or sounds

A

Agnosia (usually caused by physical damage to the brain by stoke or MS)

82
Q

Memory loss occurring naturally over time as neurochemical trace fades

A

Decay

Seen in ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting

83
Q

A retrieval error caused by the existence of other similar information - reason for memory loss - is directional

A

Interference

84
Q

What are the two different types of interference

A

Proactive interference — old information is interfering with new learning
Retroactive interference - new information causes forgetting of old information - one way of preventing this is reducing number of interfering events

85
Q

When is the peak period for encoding in a persons life

A

Teens and twenties

86
Q

Prospective memory

A

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future

Event based remains mostly in tact when we age but time based tends to decline (eg. Remembering to take meds at 7am)

87
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Outside influences or factors can influence our memories and cause false memories

88
Q

Memory construction error involving confusion between semantic end episode memory - a person remembers the details of an event bu confuses the context under which the details were gained
Often occurs when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the store as happening to him or herself

A

Source amnesia

89
Q

Brains develop neural connections rapidly in response to stimuli

A

Neuroplasticity (adult brains have way less plasticity than children’s brains )

90
Q

As we grow older weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains ability to process information

A

Synaptic pruning

91
Q

When a stimulus is repeated the stimulated neuron becomes more efficient at releasing NT and the receptor site increases receptor density

A

Long term potentiation - basis of long term memory

Behavioural sciences (7 decks)

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