Learning

Question 1

In the context of learning, what is a stimulus?

Answer 1

It is any event, object, or other phenomenon to which an individual can respond.

For example, a loud noise that causes a person to jump up in surprise is a stimulus.

Question 2

Name the two types of learning, distinguished by whether they involve a single stimulus or an association between multiple stimuli/events.

Answer 2

Associative and non-associative learning

Associative learning involves an association between multiple events (such as food and a sound played by an experimenter). Non-associative learning involves only a single stimulus.

Question 3

Name two types of non-associative learning.

Answer 3

1. habituation
2. sensitization

Question 4

Many new stockbrokers on the exchange floor have difficulty getting work done with the commotion going on around them. Over time, they become so accustomed to the sound that they don’t even notice it. This exemplifies which form of non-associative learning?

Answer 4

habituation

Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentation of the stimulus. This is one of the simplest and most common forms of learning, since it allows us to tune out non-essential stimuli and focus on important things.

Question 5

What is the term for** responding to an old, previously habituated stimulus** as if it were newly presented?

Answer 5

dishabituation

This situation occurs when a subject repeatedly experiences the same stimulus, gets used to it, and stops responding (habituation). Dishabituation can then take place if he or she is given a new stimulus and is then provided with the original stimulus again, at which point the subject responds to it like he or she did originally.

Question 6

What type of non-associative learning is often considered the opposite of habituation?

Answer 6

sensitization

Sensitization occurs when repeated exposures to the same stimulus triggers an increase in sensitivity to that stimulus.

Question 7

What phenomenon is exemplified when rats show an increased response, such as heightened head movement, after being given the same dose of cocaine a week later despite initially showing no response?

Answer 7

sensitization

Sensitization refers to the increased response to a stimulus upon repeated administrations. Note that the opposite—habituation, or the decreased response to a stimulus over time—can also occur with drugs and contributes to tolerance and dependency.

Question 8

Name two types of associative learning.

Answer 8

1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning

Question 9

Name the five components (stimuli and/or responses) of classical conditioning.

Answer 9

1. neutral stimulus
2. unconditioned stimulus
3. conditioned stimulus
4. unconditioned response
5. conditioned response

Question 10

In the context of classical conditioning, what term describes something that naturally elicits the response being studied?

In Pavlov’s dog experiment, this was the food originally presented to the dogs.

Answer 10

unconditioned stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that elicits the desired response without any conditioning. In Pavlov’s experiment, showing the dogs food made them salivate.

Question 11

In the context of classical conditioning, what term describes something that elicits the response being studied, but only after conditioning has occurred?

In Pavlov’s dog experiment, this was the sound that was produced immediately before the dogs received food.

Answer 11

conditioned stimulus

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that elicits the desired response once conditioning has occurred. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound came to be associated with the presentation of food, and it eventually provoked salivation (the response) in the dogs even when no food was presented.

By the way, throughout this deck, we’ll be using “sound,” rather than “bell,” in the context of Pavlov’s experiment. Long story short, Pavlov didn’t exactly use a bell in his experiments, but rather a variety of sounds, from a metronome to a buzzer. That knowledge isn’t MCAT-relevant, but we wanted to let you know here to avoid confusion.

Question 12

What is the term for the sound in Pavlov’s dog experiment before conditioning, when it did not cause the dogs to salivate?

Answer 12

neutral stimulus

There are a lot of stimuli (3!) in classical conditioning, so let’s make sure we have them down.

• Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that naturally elicits no response.
• Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that naturally elicits the desired response (example: the food).
• Conditioned stimulus: A stimulus that was previously neutral but that elicits the desired response once conditioning occurs.

Question 13

What is the term for the dogs’ salivation in response to the presentation of food in Pavlov’s experiment?

Answer 13

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is a response that occurs naturally upon the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (which, in Pavlov’s study, was food).

Question 14

Fill in the blank.

In classical conditioning, once conditioning occurs, the action that was previously termed the unconditioned response is known as the ________ ______.

Answer 14

conditioned response

This might seem like an easy question! However, it’s very important to understand what is going on here. Let’s use the classic example of Pavlov’s dogs. Before the dogs were conditioned, the presentation of food (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) provoked salivation (the unconditioned response, or UR). Once the dogs were conditioned to associate a sound with food, salivation began to occur in response to that sound (the conditioned stimulus, or CS). That salivation is termed the conditioned response, or CR.

In summary, a response that occurs due to the US is a UR. A response that occurs due to the CS—even though it’s the same response—is a CR.

Question 15

What does the neutral stimulus become after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

Answer 15

conditioned stimulus

The goal of classical conditioning is to turn a previously-neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 16

What is the portion of conditioning called during which Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate in response to a sound?

Answer 16

acquisition

Acquisition takes place when the subject is learning the association. The dogs initially learned to salivate because Pavlov gave them food immediately after playing the sound.

Question 17

Fill in the blank.

If Pavlov ran out of food to present to the dogs while playing the sound, _______ could occur and the association would be lost.

Answer 17

extinction

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus for an extended period of time. This causes the association to be lost and the conditioned behavior to stop.

Question 18

Fill in the blank.

After loss of association in Pavlov’s experiments due to Pavlov ceasing to present food, the dogs may experience _________ _______ if Pavlov stops playing the sound for a few days and the association returns briefly once he resumes playing it.

Answer 18

spontaneous recovery

This is when the association returns after extinction, typically after a break in the presentation of the conditioned stimulus. This recovery is transient, and the response is often not as strong as before.

Question 19

True or false.

For spontaneous recovery to take place in the context of classical conditioning, extinction must first have occurred.

Answer 19

True

This statement is accurate. By definition, spontaneous recovery is the recovery of a learned response that takes place after extinction.

Question 20

Define:

stimulus discrimination

Answer 20

The ability of a subject to differentiate relevant stimuli from similar but irrelevant stimuli.

The subject will then respond to the relevant stimuli but will ignore the irrelevant ones.

Question 21

Define:

stimulus generalization

Answer 21

The tendency for a subject to begin responding to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the stimulus of interest.

This is essentially the reverse of stimulus discrimination.

Question 22

What concept is exemplified in the Little Albert study, where a boy developed a fear of a white rat and later exhibited fear in response to various stimuli resembling white fur?

Answer 22

stimulus generalization

Since this example involves the broadening of stimuli to which the subject responds, it constitutes stimulus generalization.

Question 23

What concept is exemplified when your cat learns that the high-pitched sound of one drawer opening means she is about to be fed, but she ignores the sound of a different drawer opening?

Answer 23

stimulus discrimination

Since my cat can distinguish, or discriminate, the relevant stimulus from other, similar stimuli, this situation constitutes stimulus discrimination.

Question 24

Which type of conditioning is focused on increasing or decreasing the frequency of a voluntary behavior?

Answer 24

operant conditioning

Operant conditioning involves changing the frequency of a voluntary behavior by administering either reinforcement or punishment.

Question 25

Famous for his theory of behaviorism, which scientist is most strongly associated with operant conditioning?

Answer 25

B.F. Skinner

Skinner created the “Skinner box,” an operant conditioning chamber used with rats or pigeons.

While the MCAT doesn’t often ask questions about the names of psychologists (preferring instead to ask about their theories), B.F. Skinner is a potential exception due to his wide-reaching influence.

Question 26

True or false.

For operant conditioning to be effective, every instance of the behavior must be either rewarded or punished.

Answer 26

False

This statement is untrue! In fact, the entire concept of reinforcement schedules is oriented around the idea that operant conditioning works even if only some instances of behavior are rewarded/punished.

Question 27

What is the term for a reinforcement schedule in which every good behavior or correct response is reinforced?

Answer 27

continuous reinforcement

As one might expect, continuous reinforcement typically results in faster adoption of the “good” behavior by the subject than any other reinforcement schedule, as the subject is rewarded every time he or she completes the behavior.

Question 28

Identify the reinforcement schedule illustrated below:

A voice says “good job” every tenth time a research subject correctly places a ball on the desired target.

Answer 28

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

This is when subject behavior is rewarded every n^th time (i.e. after some predetermined, fixed number of responses).

Question 29

Identify the reinforcement schedule illustrated below:

A voice says “good job” every tenth time a patient correctly places the ball on the desired target for 10 minutes of play, then every fifth time for 5 minutes, then every eighth time for 10 minutes.

Answer 29

Variable-ratio reinforcement

A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable (sometimes random) number of responses. This schedule creates a steady, high rate of responding (e.g. gambling, slot machines).

Question 30

Identify the reinforcement schedule illustrated below:

A virtual reality motor rehabilitation game is designed to have a voice say “good job” in response to the very next correct behavior that occurs after each 5-minute period.

Answer 30

Fixed-interval reinforcement

This type of schedule provides reinforcement only after a specified, consistent amount of time has elapsed.

Question 31

Identify the reinforcement schedule illustrated below:

A virtual reality motor rehabilitation game is designed to have a voice say “good job” in response to a correct behavior every n minutes, where n is a random number chosen from the values [1, 2, 3, 4, 8].

Answer 31

Variable-interval reinforcement

This type of schedule provides reinforcement after specific (but variable and unpredictable) amounts of time have passed.

Question 32

Fill in the blanks.

________ reinforcement produces faster learning than any other reinforcement schedule, but ________ reinforcement is much more resistant to extinction.

For each blank, choose from continuous, fixed-ratio, or variable-ratio.

Answer 32

Continuous, variable-ratio

Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every instance of the desired behavior, which leads to quick adoption of the behavior. However, if one wants the subject to retain the behavior long after reinforcement has ceased (in other words, if the behavior needs to be resistant to extinction), then variable schedules, such as variable-ratio reinforcement, are superior to all others.

Question 33

A child is observed to sit in his chair doing nothing, then finish multiple math problems in a row approximately every five minutes. What reinforcement schedule is the child most likely to be experiencing?

Answer 33

Fixed-interval reinforcement

In fixed-interval schedules, the subject quickly figures out the duration of the interval and tends to perform the desired behavior toward the end of that interval. In this example, the interval is likely five minutes.

Question 34

In the context of operant conditioning, what is the difference between positive and negative?

Answer 34

• Positive refers to the addition or administration of a stimulus.
• Negative refers to the removal of a stimulus.

Make sure to avoid ascribing any “good” vs. “bad” meaning to these terms! While “positive” and “negative” may mean “good” and “bad” in conversation, they do not share that meaning in this context.

Question 35

In the context of operant conditioning, what is administered to incentivize a subject to continue performing a behavior?

Answer 35

reinforcement

Reinforcement refers to a response (such as a reward) that is administered to encourage a desired behavior.

Question 36

In the context of operant conditioning, what is administered to decrease the frequency of an undesired behavior?

Answer 36

punishment

The aim of punishment is to discourage the subject from performing a behavior. We are all familiar with real-life examples, such as putting a noisy child in a time-out.

Question 37

Identify the operant conditioning scenario illustrated below:

A child gets a gold star sticker for each word spelled correctly on a weekly quiz.

Answer 37

positive reinforcement

This involves administering (positive) a reward in an attempt to encourage a desired behavior (reinforcement).

Question 38

Identify the operant conditioning scenario illustrated below:

Students in the U.S. Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program are fined $5 every time they quote the movie Top Gun.

Answer 38

negative punishment

This involves removing (negative) a reward in an attempt to discourage an unwanted behavior (punishment).

This story about Top Gun is reportedly true, although who really knows what is true on the Internet.

Question 39

Identify the operant conditioning scenario illustrated below:

A child picks his nose during dinner, and his mother chides him in front of the family.

Answer 39

positive punishment

This involves administering (positive) an unwanted consequence in an attempt to discourage an unwanted behavior (punishment).

Question 40

Identify the operant conditioning scenario illustrated below:

A cross-country coach lets his runners skip one sprint for each time they do a good deed (such as thanking the bus driver or picking up trash).

Answer 40

negative reinforcement

This involves removing (negative) an adverse consequence in an attempt to encourage a desired behavior (reinforcement).

Question 41

Identify the operant conditioning scenario illustrated below:

A 6-year-old is not listening to her babysitter and is acting inappropriately. The babysitter decides to take away a cookie from snack time for each incident of misbehavior.

Answer 41

negative punishment

This occurs when a specific desired stimulus (the cookie) is removed after a undesired behavior is exhibited, intending to make it so the behavior happens less often.

Question 42

What is the difference between escape and avoidance?

Answer 42

• Escape refers to taking an action to remove oneself from an adverse stimulus that is already occurring.
• Avoidance refers to taking an action to prevent an adverse stimulus before it has occurred.

Question 43

What reinforcement schedule is exemplified when Clara answers questions at a rapid pace to stop the electric shock after five correct responses, in exchange for a $10 payment?

Choose from escape learning, avoidance learning, or neither.

Answer 43

escape learning

Since the electric shock in this study persists until the subject takes an action (answering questions correctly), the reward is escape from the shock, constituting escape learning.

Question 44

Learning to swerve slightly to miss a nasty pothole on one’s commute to work constitutes what form of learning?

Choose from escape learning, avoidance learning, or neither.

Answer 44

avoidance learning

Since the individual is learning to avoid the adverse stimulus (the feeling of hitting a pothole) before it is encountered, this is avoidance learning.

Question 45

What type of learning occurs as a result of escape and avoidance behaviors?

Choose from positive punishment, negative punishment, positive reinforcement, or negative reinforcement.

Answer 45

negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement refers to rewarding a behavior through the removal (escape from) or avoidance of an adverse stimulus.

Question 46

A researcher is designing an operant conditioning study in which rats are rewarded for button presses with treats. How is the researcher likely to ensure that the rats are sufficiently motivated by the treats?

Answer 46

The researcher will deprive the rats of food for a period of time.

This is certainly sad, but it avoids the possibility of confusing the experimental results by using overstuffed rats who just don’t want more food. Starving the rats is a way to operationalize (define/put into reality) the more abstract concept of motivation in this experiment.

Question 47

Define:

shaping

Answer 47

It refers to the process of successively rewarding behaviors that are closer and closer to a complex desired behavior.

Shaping is particularly relevant with animal training. If I am training my dog to jump through a series of hoops, I might first reward him for walking through one hoop, then for jumping through that hoop, and finally for jumping through multiple hoops.

Question 48

Is shaping more closely related to operant or classical conditioning?

Answer 48

operant conditioning

We know this to be true because shaping relies on conscious learning of voluntary behaviors that are then reinforced. This differs from classical conditioning, which deals with largely unconscious learning resulting from paired stimuli.

Question 49

Fill in the blank.

A student is at work, passively listening to the sound of an MCAT video about an unfamiliar science concept. If the student later finds that he answers nearly every question on the topic correctly in a practice set, he has undergone _________ learning.

Answer 49

latent

Latent learning is passive learning that takes place without clear reinforcement. This means that learning is occurring, but it is not observed until some reinforcement or incentive is introduced (e.g. the reinforcement implicit in completing practice questions accurately) to demonstrate it.

Question 50

What broad term refers to organized methods implemented to find solutions to problems?

Answer 50

problem solving

Problem solving includes methodical thought processes that are specifically aimed at finding solutions to given problems.

Question 51

What problem-solving method involves repeatedly attempting solutions, sometimes almost at random, until one finally works?

Answer 51

trial and error

Note that trial and error is also relevant in the context of cognition.

Question 52

What phenomenon is demonstrated when a dog reverts to its primal behavior of barking at a man who opens the door under stress, despite having been conditioned to sit quietly when a stranger enters?

Answer 52

instinctual drift

This is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response.

Question 53

What is the term for learning a new behavior by observing others engage in that behavior?

Answer 53

observational learning

While observational learning is particularly relevant in the context of children, adults engage in it as well.

Question 54

Fill in the blank.

Supporters of the concept of _________ learning would expect kind, loving families to give rise to kind, loving adults and cruel, apathetic families to give rise to cruel, apathetic adults.

Answer 54

observational

This is learning which occurs through observation (e.g. modeling) of the behavior of those around you.

Question 55

What is the name of the most famous experiment involving observational learning, conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura?

Answer 55

Bobo doll experiment

In this study, children observed adults beating and abusing an inflatable doll. Depending on the specifics of the situation, the children were later seen to engage in similar abusive behavior, indicating that observational learning had taken place.

Question 56

One of the benefits of school for young children, aside from education, is that the child can learn to socialize properly by watching others and imitating how they behave. Which method of observational learning is occurring in school?

Answer 56

modeling

This is a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual. For example, a boy may learn to tie a tie or shave by watching his father or older brothers do it.

Question 57

What are the neurons called that fire both when a person performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that action?

Answer 57

mirror neurons

These neurons play a crucial role in observational learning. They also are thought to influence common real-world phenomena, such as our urge to yawn when we see another person yawning.

Question 58

Which of the following emotions is most closely tied to the actions of mirror neurons?

• Anger
• Happiness
• Sympathy
• Empathy

Answer 58

empathy

Empathy is the experience of understanding another’s condition from their perspective: placing oneself in another’s shoes and feeling what they are feeling. Even though the event is not happening to you, you may experience similar reactions, which is tied to the firing of mirror neurons.

Question 59

Fill in the blank.

While watching a coronary artery bypass graft for the first time, a med student feels an exhilarating sensation and excitement as the surgeon performs her task. The student’s feelings are an example of ________ emotion.

Answer 59

vicarious

Vicarious emotions are emotions that one feels while watching another person experience an event without actually having experienced a similar event themselves (if they had, it would be empathy). Both empathetic emotions and vicarious emotions are highly useful in social interactions.