Emotion and Stress

Question 1

What is an emotion?

Answer 1

While an exact scientific consensus on the definition of an emotion is still lacking, it is generally agreed that emotions are:

• short-lived biological states,
• associated with both feelings and thoughts, and
• accompanied by changes to the nervous system and physiology.

Question 2

What are three differences between an emotion and a mood?

Answer 2

• Emotions are shorter-lasting than moods.
• Moods are typically more general (“good,” “bad,” “irritable,” etc.) than emotions (“anger,” “surprise,” etc.).
• Emotions are associated with consistent facial expressions (per Paul Ekman), while moods are not.

Question 3

What are the three components of emotion?

Answer 3

• cognitive
• physiological
• behavioral

Question 4

Describe:

The cognitive component of emotion.

Answer 4

The cognitive component refers to how one interprets one’s emotion.

For example, if a relative has cancer, and cancer is scary, an individual will interpret this situation as scary and may become anxious.

Question 5

Describe:

The physiological component of emotion.

Answer 5

The physiological component refers to the body’s physical reactions to emotion.

For example, anxiety over a relative’s cancer diagnosis may cause increased heart rate, sweating, and other physical signs of anxiety.

Question 6

Describe:

The behavioral component of emotion.

Answer 6

The behavioral component refers to how one expresses emotion.

For instance, anxiety over a relative’s cancer diagnosis may make an individual feel the need to channel the anxious energy that results from the physiological component of emotion. The person might pace in the hallway, clean the house, etc.

Question 7

What are the three components of both emotion and attitude?

Answer 7

The three components of emotion are:
* cognitive
* physiological
* behavioral

The three components of attitude are:
* affective
* behavioral
* cognitive

Be sure not to confuse these based on their similarities!

Question 8

What does Paul Ekman define as a universal emotion?

Answer 8

A universal emotion is an emotion that is experienced and expressed similarly across all human cultures.

These are not necessarily the only emotions, but their existence supports the concept that at least some emotions are biologically based.

Question 9

Fill in the blank.

When Paul Ekman described universal emotions as being expressed similarly across cultures, he was referring mainly to ______ expressions.

Answer 9

facial

Ekman’s focus of study was on facial expressions, including movements of the eyes, mouth, and other facial features.

Question 10

Name the seven “universal” emotions.

Answer 10

The seven universal emotions are:
* Happiness
* sadness
* surprise
* fear
* joy
* anger
* disgust

​Note that contempt is sometimes also listed, but the AAMC does not consider this one of the seven that you should memorize.

Question 11

Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?

• Surprise
• Embarrassment
• Fear

Answer 11

Embarrassment

However, surprise and fear are both listed among the seven universal emotions.

Question 12

Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?

• Disgust
• Happiness
• Jealousy

Answer 12

Jealousy

However, disgust and happiness are both listed among the seven universal emotions.

Question 13

Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?

• Annoyance
• Sadness
• Joy

Answer 13

Annoyance

However, sadness and joy are both listed among the seven universal emotions.

Question 14

Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?

• Anger
• Guilt
• Surprise

Answer 14

Guilt

However, anger and surprise are both listed among the seven universal emotions.

Question 15

True or false:

Contempt is one of Ekman’s universal emotions that you must know for the MCAT.

Answer 15

False

While some lists do include contempt as a universal emotion, the AAMC official outline specifically does not.

Question 16

Fill in the blanks.

Joy and happiness are both positive emotions. Of these, ________ tends to have internal causes and be more fulfilling and long-lasting, while _________ is more temporary and is often caused by external factors.

Answer 16

joy, happiness

Joy tends to be more internally based and lasts longer, while happiness is often brought on by external factors and, as such, lasts a shorter duration.

Question 17

What two factors does the Yerkes-Dodson law describe the relationship between?

Answer 17

Arousal and performance

For instance, this law would explain whether a sleepy (low-arousal), awake and alert (moderate-arousal), or hyperactive (high-arousal) musician would be likely to perform best in a symphony.

Question 18

True or false:

The Yerkes-Dodson law states that people perform best when they are entirely non-emotional.

Answer 18

False

The Yerkes-Dodson law actually states that people perform best when they are moderately emotionally stimulated. Being extremely emotional or entirely without emotion leads to inferior performance.

Question 19

Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.

A dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart rate rises, causing you to realize that you are afraid.

Answer 19

The James-Lange theory of emotion

This theory states that the physiological aspects of emotion (here, increased heart rate) precede and lead to the cognitive interpretation of emotion (here, realizing that you are afraid).

Question 20

Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.

As you are walking down the street, a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart rate rises, and you feel scared at the same time. In response to these occurrences, you shriek.

Answer 20

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

This theory states that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion happen independently and simultaneously in response to the stimulus.

Question 21

Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.

You are walking down the street when a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that you might be bitten by this dog. Next, you experience fear and shriek.

Answer 21

The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

This theory states that a physiological response is experienced first. Next, the stimulus is cognitively interpreted, context may be considered, and finally emotion follows.

Question 22

Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.

You are walking down the street when a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. You realize this dog may be about to bite you so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, your breathing deepens, and at the same time, you feel scared.

Answer 22

The Lazarus theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. One must first think about their situation before they can experience an emotion.

This theory is less heavily tested on the MCAT than the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories, but it is still helpful to know.

Question 23

Which theory of emotion was initially tested in an experiment involving the administration of epinephrine to subjects, some of whom were warned about its side effects and others of whom were not?

Answer 23

The Schachter-Singer theory

This description matches Schachter and Singer’s original experiment. In this experiment, participants who were warned about the side effects of epinephrine were less likely than uninformed subjects to interpret their physiological changes as emotion (such as anger). This underscores the importance of the cognitive interpretation of emotion.

Question 24

What does the James-Lange theory of emotion state must occur before the perception of emotion?

Answer 24

A physiological response

Perhaps counterintuitively, this theory posits that an emotion is not perceived until the individual first perceives a physiological effect, such as increased heart rate.

Question 25

In which (if any) theory of emotion does the cognitive perception of emotion occur prior to a physiological effect?

Answer 25

None of them

Of the theories of emotion to know for the MCAT, none of them posit that cognitive perception occurs before a physiological response. The physiological response either precedes or occurs simultaneously to the perception of emotion.

Question 26

What are the three main regions that compose the limbic system, the brain area primarily associated with emotion?

Answer 26

The three main regions are:
* amygdala
* hypothalamus
* hippocampus

Question 27

Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for the emotions we feel, most notably fear?

Answer 27

amygdala

Question 28

Which region of the brain controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sympathetic or parasympathetic activation and changes in heart rate?

Answer 28

hypothalamus

This region also communicates with the amygdala.

Question 29

Which region of the brain is responsible for how an individual chooses to behave in response to his or her emotional experience?

Answer 29

prefrontal cortex

This region deals with complex planning and decision-making, such as the conscious choice to behave in a certain fashion.

Question 30

Fill in the blank.

The __________ branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body to run or fight off any dangers perceived by the body.

Answer 30

sympathetic

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, glands release epinephrine to cause an increase in heart rate and in blood flow to muscles (“fight or flight”).

Question 31

Fill in the blank.

The _____________ branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for future emotional events by conserving and storing energy.

Answer 31

parasympathetic

When the parasympathetic (or “rest-and-digest”) system is activated, there is an increase in gastrointestinal activity and a decrease in blood flow to skeletal muscles. This helps conserve energy to use when and where it is needed.

Question 32

What branch of the autonomic nervous system is associated with the production of stress hormones?

Answer 32

sympathetic branch

Activation of this branch, also known as the “fight-or-flight” system, is associated with increased production of stress hormones, such as cortisol.

Question 33

Fill in the blank.

_______ are a universal physiological sign of sadness, easily seen on the face of an individual.

Answer 33

Tears

Question 34

True or false:

Physiological effects of emotion include high pulse rate, sweating, sympathetic hormone relase, and sympathetic changes in blood pressure.

Answer 34

True

Question 35

Fill in the blank.

_________ is a reddening of the face which can occur in response to anger. In contrast, the face may “empty” of blood and turn pale in response to the emotion of _________.

Answer 35

Flushing, fear

Question 36

Fill in the blank.

_______ refers to the way one interprets an event and determines how to feel and act in response.

Answer 36

Appraisal

Question 37

True or false:

Stress is always negative and unhealthy.

Answer 37

False

Stress may often be thought of as unhealthy, and chronic stress certainly is, but short-term, motivating stress (termed eustress) also exists, such as nervous excitement about an upcoming big game.

Question 38

Angela is worried about her upcoming midterm, but she uses this stress to motivate herself to study and even becomes excited to put her hard work to use. Angela is experiencing what form of stress?

Answer 38

eustress

Sometimes termed “positive stress,” eustress is short-term stress about events that we perceive to be manageable. Eustress can lead to increased motivation and performance.

Question 39

Negative events such as divorce, the death of a loved one, or abuse are likely to lead to which form of stress?

Answer 39

distress

Distress, sometimes referred to as “negative stress,” is stress that feels unpleasant and generally decreases motivation and performance. In contrast, eustress, or “positive stress,” generally feels exciting and motivating. While the events described here could lead to eustress in certain circumstances, they are much more likely to produce distress.

Question 40

In addition to eustress and distress, a third form of stress that largely does not bother the individual is termed:

Answer 40

neustress

This form of stress is essentially “neutral stress,” and it does not have noticeable positive or negative impacts on the individual. It arises from events that are mostly inconsequential.

Question 41

Name and describe the two primary types of stressors.

Answer 41

Cataclysmic events are stressors caused by extreme circumstances. Examples include epidemics, wars, and natural disasters.

Personal events are stressors that involve significant life changes such as beginning or ending a relationship, births, deaths, job changes, and moving.

Question 42

True or false:

Any amount of stress on your exam date will negatively impact your MCAT performance.

Answer 42

False

Mild levels of stress can actually help increase one’s psychological functions and serve to increase levels of motivation, such as when preparing for and taking the MCAT. However, too much stress can negatively impact test performance and studying.

Question 43

Name the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model.

Answer 43

The three stages of the GAS model are:
* alarm
* resistance
* exhaustion

These are the stages that individuals can progress through as they experience a stressful event.

Question 44

What stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model involves the activation of the sympathetic nervous system?

Answer 44

alarm stage (stage 1)

In the GAS model, this stage involves initial responses to a stressor. The sympathetic (“fight-or-flight”) nervous system becomes activated to help the body respond.

Question 45

What stage of the GAS model involves the parasympathetic nervous system attempting to return the body to homeostasis?

Answer 45

resistance stage (stage 2)

During this stage, the parasympathetic nervous system becomes activated to counter the initial reactions of the sympathetic nervous system and to return the body to normal.

Question 46

What stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model is characterized by fatigue and potential health effects?

Answer 46

exhaustion stage (stage 3)

The final stage of the GAS model, the exhaustion stage is entered when the body no longer has the resources to combat the increased stress response. This can happen when an individual is stressed for an extended period, as in chronic stress.

Question 47

What is the stage that follows the alarm stage in the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model?

Answer 47

resistance

The stages of the general adaptation syndrome are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Question 48

What hormone is strongly associated with the body’s stress response?

Answer 48

cortisol

During stressful situations, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary, which then stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a hormone that causes the body to use fat as a source of energy instead of glucose.

Question 49

True or false:

Cortisol acts on cells of the liver, among other targets.

Answer 49

True

Cortisol has widespread effects throughout the body, but one of its key targets is the liver. You should recall that the liver is the main location of gluconeogenesis, which cortisol stimulates.

Question 50

Which type of hormone is cortisol?

Choose from peptide hormone, steroid hormone, or tyrosine-derived hormone.

Answer 50

steroid hormone

Remember, all steroid hormones end in “-ol,” “-one,” or “-en.”

While this may seem like a biology question, 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT is actually biology, and those questions are likely to involve concepts like this one: the stress response.

Question 51

Which organ of the endocrine system secretes cortisol?

Answer 51

adrenal cortex

This can easily be remembered due to the similarity between the word “cortisol” and the word “cortex.”

Similarly to other cards in this deck, this may seem like a biology question, but 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT consists of biology.

Question 52

In the absense of major stressors, cortisol release varies throughout the day, with cortisol levels peaking soon after the individual wakes up. As such, cortisol responds to the body’s natural:

Answer 52

circadian rhythm

Circadian rhythms, which are important in many aspects of psychology, are physical, psychological, or behavioral changes that vary predictably throughout the day.

Question 53

What effect does the stress hormone cortisol have on blood sugar?

Answer 53

Cortisol increases blood sugar (or blood glucose).

Cortisol does this mainly by increasing gluconeogenesis (the production of new glucose).

Similarly to other cards in this deck, this may seem like a biology question, but 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT consists of biology.

Question 54

True or false:

Chronic, excessive levels of stress can make one more susceptible to illness.

Answer 54

True

Chronic and sustained exposure to high cortisol levels can actually inhibit the activity of leukocytes.

Question 55

True or false:

Stress can lead to behavioral changes.

Answer 55

True

Some choose to deal with the stressor head-on, others behave in a manner to avoid the stressor, and some turn to drugs and/or alcohol to escape.

Question 56

True or false:

There is only one proper method to manage stress.

Answer 56

False

This is false, of course! Many methods of stress management exist. The three that are mentioned directly on the AAMC outline are exercise, relaxation, and spirituality.

Question 57

Fill in the blank.

Chronic _______ is believed to help relieve stress and depression by facilitating the release of serotonin, endorphins, and epinephrine.

Answer 57

exercise

Question 58

What approach to stress management suggests that religion may be beneficial by offering social support and guidance during stressful events?

Answer 58

spirituality

Question 59

Fill in the blank.

Practiced meditation is a helpful way to reduce or eliminate stress via the _______-oriented method of stress management.

Answer 59

relaxation

Relaxation is often used to relax muscle constriction, slow heart rate, and slow breathing. Examples of techniques that can foster relaxation include guided meditation and yoga.

Question 60

True or false:

Excessive and chronic stress can lead to psychiatric disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety disorders.

Answer 60

True

Excessive stress can certainly contribute to the development or exacerbation of psychiatric disorders.

Question 61

Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two appealing or desirable options?

Answer 61

approach-approach conflict

One example is deciding whether to go to the birthday party of one friend or the bachelor party of another, assuming of course that you want to go to both events.

Question 62

Which type of conflict exists when a person is pondering a single goal or decision that has both good and bad aspects?

Answer 62

approach-avoidance conflict

One example is deciding whether to move in with a significant other, which has both benefits (being able to spend more time with them, saving money, etc.) and drawbacks (decreased independence, having to deal with another person’s quirks, etc.).

Question 63

Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two unappealing or undesirable options?

Answer 63

avoidance-avoidance conflict

One example is deciding whether to work on a dreaded project or to clean the disgusting bathroom. The person must choose the “less bad” of the two options.

Question 64

Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two options that each have both pros and cons?

Answer 64

double approach-avoidance conflict

For instance, imagine that you are a CEO and have to choose whether to lay a few people off and still be able to give the rest of the employees raises, or to avoid laying people off (which would be better for the people who would otherwise be laid off and possibly be better for morale) but have to freeze all salaries.

Question 65

Which type or types of conflict involve evaluating only one option?

Answer 65

approach-avoidance conflict

In such situations, the individual is weighing the good and bad aspects of a single decision.

Question 66

Which type(s) of conflict involve evaluating two options?

Answer 66

Approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and double approach-avoidance conflicts all involve debating between two options.

The only type of conflict that you must be familiar with that involves only one decision/option is approach-avoidance conflict.

Question 67

Matt is trying to decide whether to accept a job offer. It pays better than he anticipated, but it would require a long commute. What type of conflict is Matt experiencing?

Answer 67

approach-avoidance conflict

This is an easy one; since Matt is dealing only with a single decision (whether to take the job), it must be an approach-avoidance conflict!

Question 68

Mary is deciding whether to retake the MCAT. She likes the idea of a chance to improve her score, but she worries about taking another month or more to study. If she chose not to retake, she could spend that time on a medical trip, which would be more fun but would be less likely to help her application than an increased MCAT score. What type of conflict is Mary experiencing?

Answer 68

double approach-avoidance conflict

Here, Mary is choosing between two separate options that each have pros and cons. This complex situation exemplifies a double approach-avoidance conflict.