Consciousness

Question 1

Fill in the blank.

A patient who is awake and able to process her own thoughts and the world around her would be deemed ______.

Answer 1

conscious

Consciousness is the state of being awake and able to process what is happening both internally and externally relative to oneself.

Question 2

Fill in the blank.

A medical student reports to a room where the patient is awake, but lethargic and non-responsive to questions. The student should note that the patients is conscious but not ______.

Answer 2

alert

Alertness/arousal refers to the ability to pay attention to events that are occurring in the environment. Typically, human alertness varies on a 24-hour cycle.

Question 3

Fill in the blank.

________ can be severely hindered by chemicals, brain injuries, ADHD, or fatigue.

Answer 3

Awareness

Question 4

Which area of the brain controls arousal and consciousness?

Answer 4

reticular activating system

Question 5

Fill in the blank.

Polysomnography is a method of monitoring physiological activity during _____.

Answer 5

sleep

Question 6

Fill in the blank.

________ testing measures the electrical activity of the brain and is particularly used to differentiate between the stages of sleep.

Answer 6

Electroencephalography

(EEG)

An EEG test is termed an electroencephalogram.

Question 7

Fill in the blank.

A stroke researcher who wishes to measure the activity of hand muscle in response to cortical stimulation during therapy is most likely to use ________.

Answer 7

Electromyography

(EMG)

EMG measures muscle response or electrical activity in response to a nerve’s stimulation of the muscle.

Question 8

Fill in the blank.

The results of ________ are used as a measure of eye movement, often during sleep.

Answer 8

Electrooculography

(EOG)

While the mechanism of an EOG is somewhat complicated, for the MCAT, it can be thought of as a measure of eye movement, which can be used (among other purposes) to compare the phases of sleep.

Question 9

Which stage of sleep occurs after one has decided to sleep and closed their eyes?

It lasts between 1 and 10 minutes, and one can quickly return to being fully awake.

Answer 9

NREM stage 1

Here, NREM just stands for “non-REM.” You will sometimes see this stage referred to as simply “stage 1.”

Question 10

Which stage of sleep lasts about 20 minutes, while the heart rate slows, body temperature lowers, and overall activity decreases to prepare for a deep sleep?

Answer 10

NREM stage 2

Question 11

Which stage of sleep, starts about 45 minutes after falling asleep and is known as slow-wave sleep?

Answer 11

NREM stage 3

(formerly stages 3 and 4)

EEG recordings show brain waves slowing and increasing in size. Even disturbances such as noise or body movements will not elicit a reaction.

Question 12

What is the stage of sleep where sleep observers would expect the deepest sleep for the subject, and it is when dreaming usually happens?

Answer 12

REM sleep

It is often called “paradoxical sleep” due to high brain activity combined with muscle paralysis.

This stage is also characterized by increases in heart rate and respiration.

Question 13

If an extremely stressed medical student is prevented from sleeping for two days, when he finally does sleep, how will his sleep cycle vary from usual?

Answer 13

He will spend more time in REM sleep.

Additionally, he will reach the REM stage of sleep more quickly than he would in a non-sleep-deprived cycle. Overall, this phenomenon is termed REM rebound.

Question 14

What theory of dreaming posits that dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of differences in brain wave activity (such as activation of the brain stem) during sleep?

Answer 14

activation-synthesis theory

This is a neurobiological theory of dreaming. That is, rather than proposing that dreams serve a cognitive purpose, it essentially posits that dreams exist as a result of (somewhat) random brain activity.

Question 15

If a person wakes up to find that she suddenly understands the solution to a problem she was pondering the night before, this supports which theory of dreaming?

Answer 15

problem-solving theory

As its name implies, this theory proposes that our brains use dreams to work out the same problems that we tackle when we are awake.

Question 16

Freud proposed that dreams represent unconscious desires of the id that are repressed by the ego and superego during the day. Which theory of dreaming does this describe?

Answer 16

wish fulfillment theory

This is Freud’s interpretation of the purpose of dreams. He proposed that the “wish fulfillment” that he believed occurs in dreams exists to resolve inner conflicts regarding those wishes.

Question 17

Name the two parts of a dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory.

Answer 17

1. Manifest content
2. Latent content

Freud proposed that manifest content encompasses the actual content of the dream, while latent content refers to the hidden or symbolic meaning behind that manifest content.

Question 18

Fill in the blank.

Tara has a dream in which she is being chased by a dark figure wherever she goes. The figure has a deep voice, similar to her father. In this dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory, the dark figure is the _____ content.

Answer 18

manifest

Since the dark figure is the direct, actual content of Tara’s dream, it is termed the manifest content.

Question 19

Fill in the blank.

Tara has a dream in which she is being chased by a dark figure wherever she goes. The figure has a deep voice, similar to her father. In this dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory, the potential connection to her relationship with her father is the _____ content.

Answer 19

latent

Tara’s father is not in the dream directly, but rather may serve as a symbolic explanation for the dream’s events. Therefore, her relationship with her father is the latent content of the dream.

Question 20

Fill in the blank.

One complete sleep cycle takes _____ minutes on average.

Answer 20

90

Question 21

Of the first three stages of sleep, during which stage can the sleeping individual be most easily awakened?

Answer 21

Stage 1

Of the three stages of NREM sleep, stage 1 is the lightest.

Question 22

Fill in the blank.

The deepest stage of sleep is _____.

Answer 22

Stage 3

Alternatively termed slow-wave sleep or deep NREM sleep, stage 3 is the deepest stage of sleep. It is typically very difficult to wake up a person who is in stage 3 sleep.

Question 23

What is the stage of the sleep cycle where people are somewhat easily awakened but tend to feel groggy and disoriented upon waking?

Answer 23

REM sleep

REM sleep, like stage 1 sleep, is a stage in which individuals sometimes spontaneously awaken (or alternatively can be relatively easily woken up by someone else). However, unlike in stage 1 sleep, individuals waking up from REM sleep are likely to be disoriented and sleepy.

Question 24

Which stage of sleep is marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes on an EEG?

Answer 24

Stage 2

On an electroencephalogram (EEG), sleep spindles are brief, low-amplitude bursts of activity, while K-complexes are high-amplitude (large) single waves.

Question 25

What are the low-frequency brain waves that predominate during stage 3 of sleep?

Answer 25

Delta waves

Delta waves are low-frequency, slow waves that predominate during the deepest stage of sleep, which is stage 3 (alternatively termed slow-wave sleep).

Question 26

Which type of brain waves are present during both stages 1 and 2 of sleep?

Answer 26

Theta waves

Theta waves are higher-frequency than delta waves but lower-frequency and slower than the waveforms that predominate when the individual is awake.

Question 27

The EEG of a college student who is awake and trying to solve a computer science problem for class is likely to show which brain waves?

Answer 27

Beta waves

While both beta and alpha waves are observed in awake individuals, beta waves are the predominant pattern in individuals who are highly alert, such as people who are at work (assuming their job doesn’t put them to sleep!) or trying to solve a problem.

Question 28

The EEG of an artist who is relaxing in her studio while occasionally painting a few brushstrokes is likely to show which brain waves?

Answer 28

Alpha waves

Alpha waves are found in awake individuals but are indicative of a more relaxed state than beta waves. Activities like meditation or relaxed creativity tend to be marked by alpha waves.

Question 29

Fill in the blank.

The ______ _______ is a biological process that oscillates throughout 24 hours. It is commonly referred to as the “biological clock” and varies depending on age.

Answer 29

circadian rhythm

Question 30

Name the hormone that promotes sleep in humans.

Answer 30

melatonin

Question 31

Which gland of the body produces melatonin, and which overall body system (nervous, muscular, endocrine, etc.) is it part of?

Answer 31

pineal

Since it produces a hormone, the pineal gland is part of the endocrine system. The pineal gland is located near the thalamus in the brain.

Question 32

Fill in the blank.

The activation-synthesis theory states that physiological changes in the brain are responsible for the creation of _____.

Answer 32

dreams

Question 33

Fill in the blank.

Night terrors are feelings of great fear experienced upon suddenly waking in the night. Abnormal events that occur during sleep, such as night terrors or somnambulism, are classified as ______.

Answer 33

parasomnias

Note that somnambulism (from the front of this card) is commonly termed “sleepwalking” and is a common parasomnia.

Question 34

Parasomnias occur most often during which stage of sleep?

Answer 34

Stage 3

Parasomnias (such as sleepwalking and night terrors) most frequently occur during stage 3 sleep, although they can also arise during REM sleep.

Question 35

What is the difference between a parasomnia and a dyssomnia?

Answer 35

• Parasomnias are sleep disorders that involve abnormal events during sleep (such as night terrors).
• Dyssomnias are sleep disorders that involve abnormalities in falling or staying asleep (such as insomnia).

Question 36

Fill in the blank.

_________ ______ is characterized by pauses in breathing that can last up to a minute, often causing the person to be roused from sleep.

Answer 36

Sleep apnea

Sleep apnea is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).

Question 37

Fill in the blank.

People who so easily enter sleep that they can fall asleep randomly anytime (but particularly when they are relaxed) are likely to be diagnosed with ______.

Answer 37

narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).

Question 38

Fill in the blank.

Many residents suffer from chronic stress, which can lead to them being unable to fall asleep for days. This inability to fall or stay asleep for extended periods of time is called _______.

Answer 38

insomnia

Insomnia is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).

Question 39

Fill in the blank.

_______ is characterized by the subject being in a stage of consciousness such that he or she is open to the suggestions of another individual who is controlling the situation.

Answer 39

Hypnosis

Question 40

Which theory posits that a hypnosis patient experiences a divided state of consciousness when hypnotized.

Answer 40

Dissociation theory

This can be thought of as the patient tuning out their everyday consciousness to favor the state of consciousness directed by the hypnotist.

Question 41

Which theory subscribes to clinicians who believe that hypnosis can be helpful for quitting smoking and that social influences have a more profound effect when a patient is hypnotized?

Answer 41

Social influence theory

This theory posits that those under hypnosis are highly vulnerable to social influences, causing the patient to do and say what the hypnotist expects of them, even without intent.

Question 42

What is the consciousness-altering process in which an individual uses focused attention to induce a specific mode of consciousness, often for benefits like stress relief or emotion management?

Answer 42

meditation

Question 43

Name the three primary categories of consciousness-altering drugs.

Answer 43

1. depressants
2. stimulants
3. hallucinogens

A consciousness-altering drug is any drug which can alter one’s cognitive functioning.

Question 44

Which class of drug lowers the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain, causing delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor skills?

Examples include benzodiazepines, opiates, and alcohol.

Answer 44

depressants

Question 45

Which class of drugs is commonly abused for recreation?

Answer 45

hallucinogens

It can bring about:

• images that do not exist in reality
• colors that appear brighter to the user
• extreme euphoria for the user
• extreme fear in the user

Question 46

Which class of drug, surprisingly used to treat hyperactivity and attention-deficit issues?

Answer 46

stimulants

Symptoms:

• elevated speed of bodily functions
• highly-energized feelings and alertness

These drugs (e.g. Adderall) are sometimes abused by premeds and medical students to stay awake and improve their physical/mental stamina.

Question 47

Name the neurotransmitter most strongly associated with drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain.

Answer 47

Dopamine

Question 48

What type of dependence occurs when the drug user is dependent on their chosen substance primarily to avoid painful emotions, bad memories, or uncomfortable cravings?

Answer 48

Psychological dependence

In essence, psychological dependence is any dependence that exists due to something other than physical symptoms.

Question 49

What type of dependence often manifests itself as fatigue, nausea, and headache once the abuser has stopped consuming the substance?

Answer 49

Physiological dependence

Physiological dependence involves the physical symptoms of withdrawal, which refers to highly uncomfortable or even dangerous physiological effects experienced after one has stopped using a drug.

Question 50

True or false.

While a deeply uncomfortable experience, withdrawal does not carry the risk of serious medical harm.

Answer 50

False

This is absolutely false! Withdrawal from certain drugs, including alcohol, can be fatal. This underscores the importance of good medical guidance in the treatment of addiction.

Question 51

Name the theory that attempts to explain drug addiction in the context of contradictory processes.

An example of such processes is the stimulation caused by a drug and the depression caused by the body’s attempt to restore homeostasis.

Answer 51

Opponent-process theory

This theory at least partially explains why drug withdrawal feels so terrible. The body is accustomed to generating processes that “oppose” the action of the drug, both to ensure homeostasis and to keep the person alive. Once the person quits using the drug, all that remains is the unpleasant opponent process.

Question 52

Fill in the blank.

Intense desires to consume a drug are termed ______.

Answer 52

cravings

Of course, cravings exist for things other than drugs (such as food), but the MCAT focuses on cravings in the context of addiction.

Question 53

What term is used to refer to the need that develops over time to consume more of a drug to achieve the same effect?

Answer 53

tolerance

When a drug user (or a user of any medication) has to consume larger doses to achieve the same effect they were previously experiencing with smaller doses, they have developed tolerance to the drug.

Question 54

Define this abbreviation.

EOG

Answer 54

electrooculography

“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “oculo-“ refers to the eye, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electrooculography is the study or examination of electrical impulses or potential related to the eyes.

Question 55

Define this abbreviation.

EMG

Answer 55

electromyography

“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “myo-“ refers to muscle, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electroencephalography is the study or examination of the electrical impulses of muscles.

Question 56

Define this abbreviation.

EEG

Answer 56

electroencephalography

“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “encephalo-“ refers to the brain, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electroencephalography is the study or examination of the electrical impulses of the brain.