Consciousness Flashcards
The stages of sleep and consciousness-altering drugs are relatively "memorization-based" MCAT concepts. These cards should make that memorization a breeze.
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A patient who is awake and able to process her own thoughts and the world around her would be deemed ______.
conscious
Consciousness is the state of being awake and able to process what is happening both internally and externally relative to oneself.
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A medical student reports to a room where the patient is awake, but lethargic and non-responsive to questions. The student should note that the patients is conscious but not ______.
alert
Alertness/arousal refers to the ability to pay attention to events that are occurring in the environment. Typically, human alertness varies on a 24-hour cycle.
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________ can be severely hindered by chemicals, brain injuries, ADHD, or fatigue.
Awareness
Which area of the brain controls arousal and consciousness?
reticular activating system
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Polysomnography is a method of monitoring physiological activity during _____.
sleep
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________ testing measures the electrical activity of the brain and is particularly used to differentiate between the stages of sleep.
Electroencephalography
(EEG)
An EEG test is termed an electroencephalogram.
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A stroke researcher who wishes to measure the activity of hand muscle in response to cortical stimulation during therapy is most likely to use ________.
Electromyography
(EMG)
EMG measures muscle response or electrical activity in response to a nerve’s stimulation of the muscle.
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The results of ________ are used as a measure of eye movement, often during sleep.
Electrooculography
(EOG)
While the mechanism of an EOG is somewhat complicated, for the MCAT, it can be thought of as a measure of eye movement, which can be used (among other purposes) to compare the phases of sleep.
Which stage of sleep occurs after one has decided to sleep and closed their eyes?
It lasts between 1 and 10 minutes, and one can quickly return to being fully awake.
NREM stage 1
Here, NREM just stands for “non-REM.” You will sometimes see this stage referred to as simply “stage 1.”
Which stage of sleep lasts about 20 minutes, while the heart rate slows, body temperature lowers, and overall activity decreases to prepare for a deep sleep?
NREM stage 2
Which stage of sleep, starts about 45 minutes after falling asleep and is known as slow-wave sleep?
NREM stage 3
(formerly stages 3 and 4)
EEG recordings show brain waves slowing and increasing in size. Even disturbances such as noise or body movements will not elicit a reaction.
What is the stage of sleep where sleep observers would expect the deepest sleep for the subject, and it is when dreaming usually happens?
REM sleep
It is often called “paradoxical sleep” due to high brain activity combined with muscle paralysis.
This stage is also characterized by increases in heart rate and respiration.
If an extremely stressed medical student is prevented from sleeping for two days, when he finally does sleep, how will his sleep cycle vary from usual?
He will spend more time in REM sleep.
Additionally, he will reach the REM stage of sleep more quickly than he would in a non-sleep-deprived cycle. Overall, this phenomenon is termed REM rebound.
What theory of dreaming posits that dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of differences in brain wave activity (such as activation of the brain stem) during sleep?
activation-synthesis theory
This is a neurobiological theory of dreaming. That is, rather than proposing that dreams serve a cognitive purpose, it essentially posits that dreams exist as a result of (somewhat) random brain activity.
If a person wakes up to find that she suddenly understands the solution to a problem she was pondering the night before, this supports which theory of dreaming?
problem-solving theory
As its name implies, this theory proposes that our brains use dreams to work out the same problems that we tackle when we are awake.
Freud proposed that dreams represent unconscious desires of the id that are repressed by the ego and superego during the day. Which theory of dreaming does this describe?
wish fulfillment theory
This is Freud’s interpretation of the purpose of dreams. He proposed that the “wish fulfillment” that he believed occurs in dreams exists to resolve inner conflicts regarding those wishes.
Name the two parts of a dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory.
- Manifest content
- Latent content
Freud proposed that manifest content encompasses the actual content of the dream, while latent content refers to the hidden or symbolic meaning behind that manifest content.
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Tara has a dream in which she is being chased by a dark figure wherever she goes. The figure has a deep voice, similar to her father. In this dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory, the dark figure is the _____ content.
manifest
Since the dark figure is the direct, actual content of Tara’s dream, it is termed the manifest content.
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Tara has a dream in which she is being chased by a dark figure wherever she goes. The figure has a deep voice, similar to her father. In this dream, according to Freud’s wish fulfillment theory, the potential connection to her relationship with her father is the _____ content.
latent
Tara’s father is not in the dream directly, but rather may serve as a symbolic explanation for the dream’s events. Therefore, her relationship with her father is the latent content of the dream.
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One complete sleep cycle takes _____ minutes on average.
90
Of the first three stages of sleep, during which stage can the sleeping individual be most easily awakened?
Stage 1
Of the three stages of NREM sleep, stage 1 is the lightest.
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The deepest stage of sleep is _____.
Stage 3
Alternatively termed slow-wave sleep or deep NREM sleep, stage 3 is the deepest stage of sleep. It is typically very difficult to wake up a person who is in stage 3 sleep.
What is the stage of the sleep cycle where people are somewhat easily awakened but tend to feel groggy and disoriented upon waking?
REM sleep
REM sleep, like stage 1 sleep, is a stage in which individuals sometimes spontaneously awaken (or alternatively can be relatively easily woken up by someone else). However, unlike in stage 1 sleep, individuals waking up from REM sleep are likely to be disoriented and sleepy.
Which stage of sleep is marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes on an EEG?
Stage 2
On an electroencephalogram (EEG), sleep spindles are brief, low-amplitude bursts of activity, while K-complexes are high-amplitude (large) single waves.
What are the low-frequency brain waves that predominate during stage 3 of sleep?
Delta waves
Delta waves are low-frequency, slow waves that predominate during the deepest stage of sleep, which is stage 3 (alternatively termed slow-wave sleep).
Which type of brain waves are present during both stages 1 and 2 of sleep?
Theta waves
Theta waves are higher-frequency than delta waves but lower-frequency and slower than the waveforms that predominate when the individual is awake.
The EEG of a college student who is awake and trying to solve a computer science problem for class is likely to show which brain waves?
Beta waves
While both beta and alpha waves are observed in awake individuals, beta waves are the predominant pattern in individuals who are highly alert, such as people who are at work (assuming their job doesn’t put them to sleep!) or trying to solve a problem.
The EEG of an artist who is relaxing in her studio while occasionally painting a few brushstrokes is likely to show which brain waves?
Alpha waves
Alpha waves are found in awake individuals but are indicative of a more relaxed state than beta waves. Activities like meditation or relaxed creativity tend to be marked by alpha waves.
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The ______ _______ is a biological process that oscillates throughout 24 hours. It is commonly referred to as the “biological clock” and varies depending on age.
circadian rhythm
Name the hormone that promotes sleep in humans.
melatonin
Which gland of the body produces melatonin, and which overall body system (nervous, muscular, endocrine, etc.) is it part of?
pineal
Since it produces a hormone, the pineal gland is part of the endocrine system. The pineal gland is located near the thalamus in the brain.
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The activation-synthesis theory states that physiological changes in the brain are responsible for the creation of _____.
dreams
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Night terrors are feelings of great fear experienced upon suddenly waking in the night. Abnormal events that occur during sleep, such as night terrors or somnambulism, are classified as ______.
parasomnias
Note that somnambulism (from the front of this card) is commonly termed “sleepwalking” and is a common parasomnia.
Parasomnias occur most often during which stage of sleep?
Stage 3
Parasomnias (such as sleepwalking and night terrors) most frequently occur during stage 3 sleep, although they can also arise during REM sleep.
What is the difference between a parasomnia and a dyssomnia?
- Parasomnias are sleep disorders that involve abnormal events during sleep (such as night terrors).
- Dyssomnias are sleep disorders that involve abnormalities in falling or staying asleep (such as insomnia).
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_________ ______ is characterized by pauses in breathing that can last up to a minute, often causing the person to be roused from sleep.
Sleep apnea
Sleep apnea is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).
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People who so easily enter sleep that they can fall asleep randomly anytime (but particularly when they are relaxed) are likely to be diagnosed with ______.
narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).
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Many residents suffer from chronic stress, which can lead to them being unable to fall asleep for days. This inability to fall or stay asleep for extended periods of time is called _______.
insomnia
Insomnia is characterized as a dyssomnia (disorder that involves trouble falling or staying asleep).
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_______ is characterized by the subject being in a stage of consciousness such that he or she is open to the suggestions of another individual who is controlling the situation.
Hypnosis
Which theory posits that a hypnosis patient experiences a divided state of consciousness when hypnotized.
Dissociation theory
This can be thought of as the patient tuning out their everyday consciousness to favor the state of consciousness directed by the hypnotist.
Which theory subscribes to clinicians who believe that hypnosis can be helpful for quitting smoking and that social influences have a more profound effect when a patient is hypnotized?
Social influence theory
This theory posits that those under hypnosis are highly vulnerable to social influences, causing the patient to do and say what the hypnotist expects of them, even without intent.
What is the consciousness-altering process in which an individual uses focused attention to induce a specific mode of consciousness, often for benefits like stress relief or emotion management?
meditation
Name the three primary categories of consciousness-altering drugs.
- depressants
- stimulants
- hallucinogens
A consciousness-altering drug is any drug which can alter one’s cognitive functioning.
Which class of drug lowers the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain, causing delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor skills?
Examples include benzodiazepines, opiates, and alcohol.
depressants
Which class of drugs is commonly abused for recreation?
hallucinogens
It can bring about:
- images that do not exist in reality
- colors that appear brighter to the user
- extreme euphoria for the user
- extreme fear in the user
Which class of drug, surprisingly used to treat hyperactivity and attention-deficit issues?
stimulants
Symptoms:
- elevated speed of bodily functions
- highly-energized feelings and alertness
These drugs (e.g. Adderall) are sometimes abused by premeds and medical students to stay awake and improve their physical/mental stamina.
Name the neurotransmitter most strongly associated with drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain.
Dopamine
What type of dependence occurs when the drug user is dependent on their chosen substance primarily to avoid painful emotions, bad memories, or uncomfortable cravings?
Psychological dependence
In essence, psychological dependence is any dependence that exists due to something other than physical symptoms.
What type of dependence often manifests itself as fatigue, nausea, and headache once the abuser has stopped consuming the substance?
Physiological dependence
Physiological dependence involves the physical symptoms of withdrawal, which refers to highly uncomfortable or even dangerous physiological effects experienced after one has stopped using a drug.
True or false.
While a deeply uncomfortable experience, withdrawal does not carry the risk of serious medical harm.
False
This is absolutely false! Withdrawal from certain drugs, including alcohol, can be fatal. This underscores the importance of good medical guidance in the treatment of addiction.
Name the theory that attempts to explain drug addiction in the context of contradictory processes.
An example of such processes is the stimulation caused by a drug and the depression caused by the body’s attempt to restore homeostasis.
Opponent-process theory
This theory at least partially explains why drug withdrawal feels so terrible. The body is accustomed to generating processes that “oppose” the action of the drug, both to ensure homeostasis and to keep the person alive. Once the person quits using the drug, all that remains is the unpleasant opponent process.
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Intense desires to consume a drug are termed ______.
cravings
Of course, cravings exist for things other than drugs (such as food), but the MCAT focuses on cravings in the context of addiction.
What term is used to refer to the need that develops over time to consume more of a drug to achieve the same effect?
tolerance
When a drug user (or a user of any medication) has to consume larger doses to achieve the same effect they were previously experiencing with smaller doses, they have developed tolerance to the drug.
Define this abbreviation.
EOG
electrooculography
“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “oculo-“ refers to the eye, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electrooculography is the study or examination of electrical impulses or potential related to the eyes.
Define this abbreviation.
EMG
electromyography
“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “myo-“ refers to muscle, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electroencephalography is the study or examination of the electrical impulses of muscles.
Define this abbreviation.
EEG
electroencephalography
“Electro-“ refers to electricity, “encephalo-“ refers to the brain, and “-graphy” essentially means “field of study.” Therefore, electroencephalography is the study or examination of the electrical impulses of the brain.
