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Motor Control & Learning > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

1
Q

phases of target aiming according to woodworth

A

identified 2 phases in the production of a target aiming task:

  • > the initial impulse
  • > error corrections
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2
Q

initial impulse of target aiming according to woodworth

A

the initial impulse (force and time) serves to move the limb (hand) towards the target

  • > uses an open loop process of control
  • > performance improves with practice
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3
Q

error correction phase of target aiming according to woodworth

A

the error correction phase guides the limb to the targe

  • > uses a closed loop process of control
  • > feedback (visual, proprioceptive) serves to reduce error
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4
Q

crossman and goodeve hypothesis of target aiming

A

the iterative corrections hypothesis

  • > series of open-loop processes (impulses) punctuated with feedback
  • > the impulse repeat (iterate) until the target is reached
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5
Q

relate crossman and goodeves iterative corrections hypo to time

A
  • > they assumed that each impulse (thus correction too) takes a constant amount of time. So, movement time increases with the number of corrections required
  • > more corrections are required for longer amplitudes (A) and smaller (w) targets
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6
Q

speed accuracy trade off (Schmidt et al. vs Fitts et. al)

A

rapid discrete movements to a target

  • > Fitts varied amplitude and width and looked at the effects on movement time
  • > schmidt varied movement time and amplitude and looked at the effects of width, referred to as effective target width
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7
Q

characteristics of speed-accuracy trade off (schmidt)

A
  • > rapid discrete movements to a target
  • > ballistic actions: open-loop processes
  • > errors increase as movement time increases
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8
Q

why would a speed accuracy trade off apply to an open loop process

A
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9
Q

impulse variability

A

impulse: product of force and time
- > faster movements require more forces to perform the movement
- > the action is primarily depends on the force and duration of muscle contraction (i.e. neural impulses)
- > inc impulses (forces) generates increased variability so causing the movement end point to deviate further from its intended trajectory (in other words: end point variability is attributed to impulse variability)

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10
Q

speed accuracy trade off violations

A

the speed-accuracy trade off may reverse for extremely fast movement times

  • > spacial accuracy tends to decrease with shorter movement times (inc. forces)
  • > temporal accuracy increases with shorter movement times (inc. forces); temp acc is a function of time, not force
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11
Q

example of speed accuracy trade off violation

A

swinging hard and fast tends to produce the best performance; specifically…

  • > visual information processing
  • > timing accuracy
  • > spatial accuracy (to an extent)
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12
Q

how general is a motor program according to schmit

A
  • > the motor program won’t ever change, it is only adapted to the situation
  • > i.e. you’ll use the same motor program to throw a basket ball for different distances from the net
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13
Q

generalized motor program (GMP) theory

A
  • > propsed by schmidt to overcome the limitations of storage and novelty (new)
  • > instead of a specific movement, the generalized motor program controls the movement patterns
  • > so, GMP is used when producing a particular. type/class of movement
  • > GMP are flexible so they can produce variations in the same GMP as required
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14
Q

characteristics of GMP

A
  • > the GMP is a representation (of a movement pattern) in memory
  • > the GMP produces a unique movement pattern when generated
  • > the output of a GMP is defined by its input parameters
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15
Q

invariant and fundamental features of a GMP

A

Sequencing

  • > the order of the different aspects of the movement

Timing

  • > the relative timing (or phasing) of the different aspects of the movement

Forces

  • > the relative forces of the different aspects of the movement
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16
Q

relate muscle forces to movements at varying speeds

A

the forces generated by any two muscles in the production of an action tends to remain proportional when movements are produced at varying speeds

i.e. movement 1

Muscle1 - 30 N

M2 - 60

movement 2

M1 - 80N

M2 - 160N

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17
Q

parameters/variables of the GMP that can be changed to meet the demands of the task

A
  • > the duration/speed of the movement
  • > the amplitude of the movement
  • > the forces of the movement
  • > the muscle(s) or limb(s) selected for the action
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18
Q

steps of movement production with respect to the generalized motor program

A
  1. the GMP is selected based on sensory information (from the surroundings)
  2. the required GMP is located and retrieved from long term memory
  3. the GMP is “parameterized” and the motor program is prepared for initiation
  4. the mvmt is performed in accord with the relatively invariant patterns/features of the GMP
  5. the surface features are tailored to meet the particular task demands - peripheral “sculpting” (feedback)
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19
Q

input:output relationship in relation to GMP

A

the learner must lear the relationship between input and outputs

  • > the better the I:O relationship is understood, the better able the learner is to select input that is needed to produce the output
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20
Q

hierarchical control summary

A

Higher levels of control

  • > the executive decision-making process; specifies the action to be produced

Lower levels of control

  • > the motor programming nodes of control, including reflexes, central pattern generators, ect. possibly responsible for (some of) the details of control execution
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21
Q

motor learning

A

a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice

  • > learning is inferred from changes in performance, it is not observable in and of itself
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22
Q

performance

A
  • > observable
  • > temporary (influenced by fatigue)
  • > influenced by performance variables, may not necessarily a result of practice
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23
Q

learning

A
  • > inferred from performance outcomes/changes
  • > permanent
  • > change (with time(
  • > practice
  • > influenced by performance variables (i.e. fatigue and arousal)
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24
Q

performance traits

A
  • > consistency
  • > flexibility
  • > efficiency
  • > improvement
  • > degredation
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25
Q

performance assessment

A

we can measure the outcome

  • > assess the outcome or end result of the motor skill being performed
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26
Q

relate time to performance

A

the amount of time it takes to complete a response is a useful measure of performance

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27
Q

absolute error

A

AE = points per trial / # of trials

ignore signs

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28
Q

kinematic data we observe in performance

A
  • > displacement
  • > velocity
  • > acceleration
  • > jerk
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29
Q

EMG Data

A

EMG: a measure of the electrical activity of muscles (measured using electrodes; surface or needle)

electromyogram data is used in experiments

this data shows the control of muscle exhibits phasic (i.e. on/off) and tonic (i.e. constant) properties

30
Q

motor learning is a _______ in motor performance

A

(permanent) change
- > and this (permanent) change in the motor control processes that underlines skilled performances

31
Q

describe the acquisition phase in motor learning assessments

A

the (skill) acquisition phase is the time the learner spent in practice acquiring the motor performance

32
Q

describe a retention test in motor learning assessments

A

they are measures of motor performance conducted some time after the acquisition phase

33
Q

describe a transfer test in the assessment phase of motor learning

A

Transfer tests are similar, but not the same as retention tests

  • > they are conducted some time after the acquisition phase
34
Q

how do we assess motor learning

A

use both retention and transfer test to assess motor learning

  • > keep in mind that a transfer test is a retention test (although a retention test may not be a transfer test)
35
Q

what are the stages of learning

A

there are three stages of learning that learners progress through as a result of time and practice

  1. Verbal-Cognitive
  2. Motor
  3. Autonomous
36
Q

verbal-cognitive stage of learning

A
  • > the learner first tries to determine what and how to perform the action
  • > initially, rapid improvement occurs as a result of initial practice (i.e. learning)
  • > movements are “slow”, fragmented and jerky
  • > high cognitive “effort” (attention)
  • > decision-making and “self talk predominate”
37
Q

motor stage of learning

A
  • > the learner begins to develop specific “motor programs” for action
  • > increased use of response produced feedback to perform the movement
  • > improvements in consistency and efficiency in the movements
  • > improvements in time and anticipation
  • > self talk decreases
  • > reduced gains in performance
38
Q

rate of learning

A

the rate of improvement of a learner changes as the learner progresses from early to late practice

  • > the rate of learning is usually indicated in performance curves and is described using a power law (ie. y=xa or y= -xa )
39
Q

autonomous stage of learning

A
  • > proficient (expert) production of movement
  • > low cognitive effort (i.e. low attention demands)
  • > “automatic” sensory analysis and error connections using a “reference of correctness”
  • > slow (marginal) gains in performance
40
Q

changes that occur with learning

A

information processing within the CNS changes with learning:

  • > stimulus identification
  • > response selection
  • > response programming
  • > parameterization
  • > feedforward/feedback processes
41
Q

performance changes that occur with learning

A
  • > knowledge
  • > control (coordination)
  • > muscles
  • > efficiency
  • > attention
42
Q

Knowledge of concepts

A

explicit knowledge

  • > is verbal knowledge
  • > i.e. the knowledge can be explained using words (“know how”)

implicit knowledge

  • > non-verbal knowledge
  • > i.e. the knowledge is not accessible to verbal expression (“no now”)
43
Q

what are the knowledge of concepts

A
  • > progression through the stages of learning leads to a better knowledge (understanding) of the activity being performed
  • > screening of salient cues from irrelevant (or less relevant) cues;
  • > rapid information processing (decision-making)
  • > efficient problem-sloving
44
Q

specificity of learning

A

“to achieve optimal performance in a test, a person should experience practice conditions that match test conditions as closely as possible

45
Q

important factors of learning

A
  • > task
  • > environment
  • > individual
46
Q

some important things to consider in learning

A
  • > learning and performance are not the same thing
  • > the stage of learning is an important consideration when helping a learner acquire a skill
  • > the age of the learner is also an important consideration when helping a learner acquire a skill
47
Q

motivation in learning

A
  • > motivation is an important variable for performance and learning
  • > low motivation can lead to insufficient practice (a necessary ingredient for learning)
  • > motivation can be intrinsic and/or extrinsic
48
Q

relate instructions to learning

A
  • > instructions provide information and is used to direct attention of the learner
  • > information “overload” will exceed the attention capacity of the learner and so yield poor performance
  • > information content should be prioritized and geared to both the stage of learning and the age of the learner
49
Q

relate demonstrations to learning

A
  • > the techniques of demonstration provides visual information about the task
  • > i.e. what and how to perform the skill
  • > observational learning
  • > skill demonstration allow for the learner to assess and copy the action of others
  • > the demonstration may take various forms (i.e. instructor, videos, pictures)
  • > the demonstration may be used before and/or after the action (action uses feedback on performance)
50
Q

relate guidance to learning

A
  • > the learner is guided through performance of the skill
  • > guidance may take different forms (i.e. informational, physical)
  • > guidance serves to reduce performance error and is thus a strong performance variable;
  • > importantly, however, guidance is not a strong learning variable (recall principle of specificity)
  • > guidance is useful early in practice, and indeed may be vital is some instances. regardless, guidance should be removed from practice (learning) as early as possible
  • a gradual withdrawal of guidance is best for learning*
51
Q

relate part practice to practice

A

part practice looks to break down the skill into its component parts, thereby reducing the attention demands on the learner

52
Q

characteristics of a good simulator (flight simulator)

A
  • > based on the concept of rehersal
  • > inexpensive, practical, consistent (predictable), safe
  • > of course the simulation must allow for skill transfer if the simulator is to be useful
53
Q

relate mental rehearsal to learning

A
  • > mental imagery concentrates on the procedural aspect of the skill, thus, imagine performing a successful skill in context in real time
  • > imagery is a cognitive skill the itself requires regular practice
54
Q

relate schedule and structure to practice

A
  • > learning requires practice
  • > the schedule and structure of practice can affect the rate of learning
55
Q

how many hours does it take to be a master of that skill

A

10 000

56
Q

the law of effect

A

it is a law that deals with reinforcement

an action produced in response to a stimulus and followed by a reward (or pleasant consequence) will tend to be repeated

  • > whereas an action produced in response to a stimulus and followed by a punishment (or unpleasant consequence) will tend to be reduced or abolished
57
Q

three methods of reinforcement

A

Positive reinforcement

  • > is the best for learning; it informs the learner of the desired action, instead of the non-desired action(s)

Punishment

Negative reinforcement

58
Q

feedback provides _____ and informs of _____

A
  • > feedback provides information that helps the learner acquire the necessary movement patterns and movement outcomes
  • > feedback informs on the errors to be corrected
  • > the person providing the feedback must know what the desired movement pattern is, be able to diagnose and report errors, etc.
59
Q

guidance

A

the instructor uses augmented feedback to guid the behaviour of the learner

  • > however, if the augmented feedback is presented too frequently then the learner may become dependent on this information
  • > the learner thus relies on augmented (extrinsic) feedback at the expense of intrinsic (response produced) feedback
  • > and performance (i.e. learning) degrades when guidance is withdrawn
60
Q

guidance hypothesis

A
  • > suggests that augmented feedback is a positive learning influence initially since it guides the learner to the correct response
  • > in later practice, however, the learner can become dependant on augmented feedback
  • > such dependancy results in poor learning, as measured on retention (transfer) tests with no augmented feedback provided
  • > augmented information provided on every trial can have a “negative” effect on learning because:

*it may prevent the processing of alliterative information that is important to task production

*it may promote short term corrections, instead of the development of long term representations

*the augmented feedback may become a part of the task (i.e. specificity)

61
Q

historic vs current thoughts on feedback

A

Initial feedback

  • > immediate (extrinsic) KR presented frequently is best for learning

(more) recent thinking

  • > reduced KR presentations as learning progresses is better for learning (cf. withdrawal of guidance - to a minimum)
62
Q

frequency of presentation of feedback

A

measure of absolute frequency

  • > the number of trials in which KR is presented

measure of relative frequency

  • > the percentage of trials in which KR is presented
63
Q

frequency schedule of feedback

A
  • > use a faded feedback schedule as the learner progresses (i.e. reduce the relative frequency of KR as a function of practice)
  • > so, use a high relative KR frequency (e.g. 100%) early in practice to guide the learners toward the correct movement
  • > to prevent a dependancy on KR,however, reduce the relative KR frequency (e.g. 50% to 25% to 10%) some time later in practice
64
Q

advantages of a feedback frequency schedule

A
  • > the learner dependancy on KR is reduced
  • > the frequency schedule is informed by the rate of learning, and is thus geared to the individual
65
Q

information content in KR

A

the information in KR (and KP) can be more or less specific

examples of less specific feedback:

- > bandwidth feedback (information is provided only when the performance and/or outcome falls outside a given range of error i.e. you’re 2 units away from target)

- > summary feedback (get feedback after trials are done)

- > average feedback (get an average feedback after trials are done

66
Q

advantages of bandwidth feedback

A
  • > reduces dependancy on extrinsic feedback as skills increases
  • > withholding feedback on “correct” trials leads to better learning
67
Q

advantages of summary feedback

A
  • > reduced (deferred) dependancy on extrinsic feedback as skill increases
  • > forces the learner to self-attend to information other than KR (or KP)
68
Q

advantages of average feedback

A
  • > there is no specific advantage in providing feedback
  • > bandwidth and/or summary feedback is a better feedback choice
69
Q

timing of feedback delivery

A

Feedback delay: the time interval between the end of the movement and the presentation of feedback (KR or KP)

  • > the feedback delay is important since the learner processes response-produced feedback (e.g. detecting/correcting errors) within this time interval

delayed feedback (KP or KR) yields better learning than instantaneous feedback

post-interval feedback: the time between the presentation of feedback (KR or KP) and the next trial

  • > sufficient time is required to process the extrinsic feedback (KR or KP) and to plan the next action
70
Q

the goals set by the instructor and the learner should be _______

A
  • > challenging
  • > attainable
  • > realistic
  • > specific
71
Q

set different types of goals

A

the goals should be measurable and attainable with practice (and effort)

outcome goals

  • > focus on the outcome, or end result

performance goals

  • > focus on performance improvements

process goals

  • > focus on certain aspects of performance

the goal(s) may be staged with a final outcome being the ultimate objective. The goal(s) should have a timeline

Motor Control & Learning (11 decks)

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