Learning Flashcards
neural plasticity
the ability of the brain’s neural function or structure to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan
synaptic plasticity
the ability of the synapse to change over time
how does change occur?
- growth or formation of new synaptic connections that strengthen the synapse
- disuse of synaptic connections that weaken or eliminate the synapse
why is synaptic plasticity important?
enables a flexible, efficient and effectively functioning NS as well as better learning from experience and memory
hebb’s rule of rewiring
interconnected groups of neurons form pathways and constant activation of those pathways results in their strengthening
the process of hebb’s rule of rewiring
- neurotransmitter is repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap and pre and post synaptic neurons fire at the same time
- this changes the structure of the synapse, making them more likely to fire together in the future and transmit signals more effectively
long-term potentiation
the strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission
long-term depression
a decrease in the strength of synaptic connections due to disuse
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers manufactured by neurons and released from axon terminals
neurohormones
chemical messengers released into the bloodstream to travel to different parts of the body
impact of glutamate on learning
- inhibits the growth of new dendritic spines on postsynaptic neurons and promotes the strengthening of synaptic connections
- the more often it excites an adjacent neuron, the more it contributes to ltp (vice versa for ltd)
AMPA
receives glutamate and activates the postsynaptic neuron
NMDA
receives glutamate and produces long-lasting modifications to the synapse
consolidation
the biological process of making a newly formed memory stable after learning
reconsolidation
whenever a memory is retrieved, it is open to further consolidation and has to be re-stabilised
adrenaline
- heightened emotional arousal = more adrenaline released
- induces the release of noradrenaline (epinephrine) in the amygdala
- amygdala signals to the hippocampus that the memory is emotionally significant
adaptive value
the value a memory has if its significance means we do not make the same mistake
learning
a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
intentional learning
sitting down to take piano lessons
unintentional learning
watching someone else play
active learning
reciting times tables
passive learning
hearing about a performance at the olympics
psychological construct
a concept used to explain something that is believed to exist but cannot always be observed
conditioning
a process of creating associations between a stimulus and a behavioural response
stimulus
any object or event that produces a response from an organism
response
a reaction by an organism to a stimulus
classical conditioning
a simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two stimuli
before conditioning
- an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) causes an unconditioned response (UCR)
- a neutral stimulus (NS) produces no effect
during conditioning (acquisition)
the NS, when paired with the UCS, produces the UCR
after conditioning
the NS, now the conditioned stimulus (CS), causes the UCR, now the conditioned response (CR)
how is after conditioning phrased
CR because of CS, eg. salivating because of the sound of the bell
how is acquisition measured
by the number of trials before the NS and CR become associated
factors affecting CC
- only reflexes can be trained
- learning is passive
- order (NS before UCS)
- timing (< 2.5 seconds)
- frequency
stimulus generalisation (cc)
the tendency for a similar stimulus to produce a response similar to the CR
stimulus discrimination (cc)
the tendency for only the CS to produce the CR
extinction (cc)
the gradual decrease in the rate that a CR occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS
spontaneous recovery (cc)
the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented after extinction
ethical implications of little albert
- psychological harm (severe anxiety and distress)
- informed consent (no evidence to suggest albert’s mother was fully aware of the nature of the experiment)
- withdrawal rights (no evidence to suggest albert’s mother could withdraw)
- debriefing (did not happen, effects could not be reversed)
operant conditioning
a type of learning where the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of the behaviour
skinner’s three-phase model
explains that behaviour can be explained by the relationships between the behaviour, the antecedents and the consequences
antecedent
cues an organism to perform a learned behaviour
response/behaviour
occurs due to a discriminative stimulus
reinforcement (oc)
an action following a behaviour which increases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again
positive reinforcement (oc)
provides a satisfying or satisfying consequence eg. money, good grades
negative reinforcement (oc)
removal of an unpleasant stimulus eg. taking medication for a headache
punishment (oc)
an action following a behaviour which decreases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again
positive punishment (oc)
delivers an unpleasant response eg. speeding, then recieving
response cost (oc)
removes a pleasant stimulus eg. getting your phone confiscated
factors affecting oc
- order (reinforcement/punishment after behaviour)
- timing (immediately)
- appropriateness of the reinforcer (experience must be satisfying or undesirable respectively)
stimulus generalisation (oc)
the tendency for the correct response to be made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during conditioning
extinction (oc)
gradual decrease in learned responses after non-reinforcement
observational learning
when someone uses observation of another person’s actions and their consequences to guide their behaviour
arrmr
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement
attention
learner must watch the model’s behaviour to recognise key features including consequences
factors influencing attention
- perceptual capabilities
- distractions
- importance of the behaviour
- similarities between model and observer
- attractiveness of the model
retention
learner must maintain a mental representation of what has been observed until it needs to be reproduced
reproduction
leaner must be capable of reproducing the behaviour
motivation
learner must want to perform the behaviour
reinforcements
learner should have a reward available for reproduction the behaviour
types of reinforcement (ol)
- direct consequence (earning money)
- vicarious/indirect (young child watching older sibling receiving reward)
- reinforcement from meeting self-set standards of performance
bandura’s social learning theory
emphasises the importance of the environment, or social context in which learning occurs
vicarious reinforcement
increases the likelihood of the observer behaviour in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is being enforced
vicarious punishment
decreases the likelihood of the observer behaviour in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is being punished
conclusions from bandura’s doll experiment
- observed behaviours are more likely to be repeated if they are reinforced
- ol can sometimes occur if a behaviour is not reinforced or punished
- there is a difference between acquisition and performance
