Leadership Competencies - Leadership & Navigation Flashcards
Henri Fayol Defined functions of management
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling.
Affects of leadership styles
Employees’ ability to make decisions that affect their work.
Employees’ sense of responsibility to the organization or team.
The standards employees seek to meet or exceed.
Employees’ belief that they will be rewarded for their work.
An understood mission and shared values.
A feeling of commitment to a shared goal.
Traits of effective HR Leaders
Develop and coach others.
Build positive relationships.
Model their values and fulfill their promises and commitments.
Have functional expertise.
Traits of ineffective HR Leaders
Focus internally rather than externally, failing to look outside the HR function to the organization’s internal and external stakeholders.
Lack strategic perspective, focusing on short-term objectives and daily tasks.
Do not anticipate or react well to change.
Resist “stretch” goals and act as a drag on the organization’s attempts to innovate.
Trait Theory
Leaders possess certain innate characteristics that followers do not possess (and probably cannot acquire), such as physical characteristics (for example, strength, stamina) and personality traits (for example, decisiveness, integrity). Sometimes referred to as the “Great Man” theory.
It equates these characteristics and leadership but without evidence.
It may discourage leader development by implying that the ability to lead cannot be acquired with study and practice.
Blake-Mouton Theory
Leadership involves managing:
Tasks (work that must be done to attain goals).
Employees (relationships based on social and emotional needs).
Five types of managers, only one of which (team leader) is considered a leader:
Country club managers (low task, high relationship) create a secure atmosphere and trust individuals to accomplish goals, avoiding punitive actions so as not to jeopardize relationships.
Impoverished managers (low task, low relationship) use a “delegate-and-disappear” management style. They detach themselves, often creating power struggles.
Authoritarian managers (high task, low relationship) expect people to do what they are told without question and tend not to foster collaboration.
Middle-of-the-road managers (midpoint on both task and relationship) get the work done but are not considered leaders.
Team leaders (high task, high relationship) lead by positive example, foster a team environment, and encourage individual and team development.
Situational Theories
Building on behavioral theories, situational theories propose that leaders can flex their behaviors to meet the needs of unique situations, employing both task or directive behaviors and relationship or supportive behaviors with employees.
Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership
Leaders adapt their behaviors to meet the evolving needs of team members. Like Blake-Mouton, the behaviors involve tasks and relationships.
As team members grow in skill and experience, leaders supply the appropriate behavior:
Telling when the employee is not yet motivated or competent.
Selling when the increasingly competent employee still needs focus and motivation (“why are we doing this”).
Participating when competent workers can be included in problem solving and coached on higher skills.
Delegating when very competent team members can benefit from greater levels of autonomy and self-direction.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Leaders change the situation to make it more “favorable,” more likely to produce good outcomes.
“Situation favorableness” occurs when:
Leader-member relationships are strong.
Task structure and requirements are clear.
The leader can exert the necessary power to reach the group’s goal.
Unfavorable situations must be changed to improve group (and leader) effectiveness. This can include:
Improving relations between the leader and the team (for example, by building trust).
Changing aspects of the task (for example, breaking a project down into more manageable pieces, providing more resources for the team).
Increasing or decreasing the leader’s exercise of power (for example, to increase team involvement in and ownership of ideas, to decrease harmful conflict or resistance to change).
Path-Goal Theory
This theory emphasizes the leader’s role in coaching and developing followers’ competencies. The leader performs the behavior needed to help employees stay on track toward their goals. This involves addressing different types of employee needs:
Directive—Help the employee understand the task and its goal.
Supportive—Try to fulfill employee’s relationship needs.
Achievement—Motivate by setting challenging goals.
Participative—Provide more control over work and leverage group expertise through participative decision making.
Emergent Theory
Leaders are not appointed but emerge from the group, which chooses the leader based on interactions.
Transactional Leadership
This theory emphasizes a leader’s preference for order and structure. It focuses on control and short-term planning.
Employees and subordinates are expected to follow orders from above.
Employees and subordinates are motivated by rewards and consequences.
Employees and subordinates are closely monitored to ensure that work is done properly and on time.
Creativity and inventiveness are not typically encouraged or nurtured.
Transactional leadership is more commonly found in the military and large and multinational organizations.
Transformational Leadership
This theory emphasizes a leader’s ability to inspire employees to embrace change. Transformational leaders are able to encourage and motivate their employees to innovate in their work, to seek out changes that can add value and growth to the organization.
Transformational leaders do not micromanage. They give their employees greater autonomy to make decisions and come up with creative solutions. A leader will also lead by example, exemplifying moral and ethical standards and values, and encourage the same from others.
This leadership approach also encourages communication, cooperation, and collaboration with others and can use mentorship to help raise up future transformational leaders.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
This theory focuses on a two-way relationship between leaders and chosen employees. The leader mentors a selected team member (or members) and gives them access to more information and resources in order to strengthen levels of trust and support. This mentorship is intended to maintain the leader’s position through the development of different two-way relationships.
This type of relationship can contribute to growth and productivity but can also create in- and out-groups within the team. The in-group may tend to strengthen and support the leader’s decisions and position due to their closer relationship. Members of the out-group may lag in development and productivity if they perceive that they are excluded or neglected.
Servant Leadership
The leaders’ goal is to serve the needs of their employees. This theory emphasizes the sharing of power. Leaders should work to help their employees develop and perform to the highest possible level, and this will generate benefits within and without the organization. It is a way of inverting the organizational/leadership norm of bottom-up service.
Servant leaders tend to be more empathetic and more trusted by employees. This can lead to greater innovation, collaboration, performance, and participation. This approach to leadership can be more resource-intensive and can take longer to produce results.
Places informal structure can be witnessed in Orgs
in org culture and social dynamics
Valuable tool for discovering informal organization structure
observation also looking at what types of behavior are rewarded and what are accepted
5 ways in which leaders can create power
Type of Power
Legitimate
Can save time in decision making and focus team on the organization’s goals.
May be insufficient if leader is not also competent and effective at leading.
Reward
Can appeal to team members’ individual motivators.
Is useful only when leader has access to and can extend to team members meaningful rewards.
Expert
Can improve a team’s efforts by offering advice and guidance. Can win respect for the team and its work throughout the organization.
Can create dependency and weaken team members’ initiative or discourage their own contributions. Effect will weaken if the individual is a weak team leader.
Referent
Appeals to social needs of individuals, the desire for affiliation.
Will weaken if leader is not competent, effective, and fair.
Coercive
Likely to get immediate results.
Damages team members’ motivation and self-direction over time.
Legitimate Power
Created formally through a title or position in the hierarchy that is associated with the rights of leadership (External Power)
Reward power
Created when leader can offer followers something they value in exchange for commitment (External Power)
Expert Power
Power is created when a leader is recognized as possessing great intelligence, insight or experience (internal power)
Referent Power
Created by the force of leaders personality the ability to attract admiration, affection and/or loyalty (Internal power)
Coercive
Power is created when the leader has the power to punish those who do not follow (external power)
what is motivation
Motivation can be defined as factors that initiate, direct, and sustain human behavior over time. Understanding why people behave the way they do helps leaders influence behavior by appealing to the right needs in the right way.
The perception of the role of motivation in organizations has changed over time. Motivation is seen as more central to the role of leaders and more complex.
Theory X/Theory Y
Motivation is seen as absolutely irrelevant (Theory X) or absolutely critical (Theory Y) in the workplace.
Theory X leaders micromanage and coerce team members because they believe people do not like to work and must be strictly controlled and forced to work.
Theory Y leaders believe that employees dislike rigid controls and inherently want to accomplish something. Therefore, leaders apply a more participative style that empowers employees.
Theory Y is considered more appropriate in today’s knowledge-driven workplaces.
Needs Theory
Individuals are motivated by a desire to satisfy certain needs. Understanding these needs allows leaders to offer the right incentives and create the most motivational external environments. Common factors are achievement, a desire for social connection, and some degree of control.
Maslow
Five basic categories of needs must be met in an ascending order:
Physiological (basic needs related to survival)
Safety and security
Belonging and love (the need to belong, to be accepted)
Esteem (both self-esteem and admiration of others)
Self-actualization (the need to fill one’s potential)
A lower-level need must be relatively satisfied in order for a higher-level need to emerge or serve to motivate.
No need is ever totally satisfied, however. The lower-level needs will always have some influence on behavior.
Herzberg
Behavior is driven by intrinsic factors (innate desires) and extrinsic factors (workplace hygiene).
Intrinsic factors: challenging work, meaningful impact of work, recognition
Extrinsic factors: job security, pay, conditions
Satisfying hygiene factors can remove some areas of discontent that interfere with motivation, but satisfactory workplace conditions are not enough in themselves to create motivation.
McClelland
Individuals are motivated by three basic desires:
Achievement (accomplishment)
Affiliation (feeling part of a group)
Power (influence or control over others)
Employees have all three needs, but the needs’ relative importance may vary among individuals. Effective leaders identify and appeal to each employee’s primary motivators. For example:
Give an achievement-oriented employee an assignment that will require and call attention to the employee’s abilities.
Incorporate socialization events or opportunities into team schedules for affiliation-oriented employees.
Delegate to power-oriented employees tasks that they can control and direct, perhaps ones with high visibility in the organization.
Self-determination
Individuals are motivated by innate needs, such as competence (McClelland’s achievement) and relatedness (McClelland’s affiliation), but also by needs for:
Autonomy, or the need to feel that one has control over one’s life.
Purpose, or the sense that one’s actions have effects beyond the individual or the workplace.
Expectancy Theory
Effort increases in relation to one’s confidence that the behavior will result in a positive outcome and reward.
Vroom
Level of effort depends on:
Expectancy. (With reasonable effort, the employee can succeed.)
Instrumentality. (Success will result in a reward.)
Valence. (The reward is meaningful to the employee.)
All three factors must be addressed to create motivated employees.
Attribution Theory
The way a person interprets the causes for past success or failure is related to the present level of motivation. A leader can help employees attribute results to the correct causes and create opportunities for success.
Heider, Weiner
Attribution Theory
Success or failure can be attributed to internal factors (for example, skills, diligence) or external factors (for example, available resources, market events). Internal factors may be under the employee’s control (for example, the employee can work harder or be more careful), but external factors are probably beyond the employee’s control.
A track record of success can create empowered and resilient employees, while a track record of failure (even though the causes were external to the employee’s control) can create “learned helplessness” and even aggression or hostility in the workplace.
Leaders create opportunities for success for less-experienced employees, perhaps by providing more resources, coaching, and guidance. More-challenging assignments are given to employees who believe they can (and are likely to) succeed.
Goal-Setting Theory
Motivation can be increased by providing employees with goals against which they can assess their achievement.
Optimally, employees should be involved in designing goals and supported in achieving their goals.
Effective goals are:
Specific and clear.
Important to the individual. This enables greater commitment.
Realistic but challenging. Goals that are unrealistically high can harm motivation.
Feedback helps employees determine the effectiveness of their effort.
Equity Theory
Motivation based on employees sense of fairness.
An individual compares their perceived value with that of others in similar roles and makes a calculation based on their inputs and outputs:
Inputs—skills, training, effort, education, experience
Outputs—salary, bonuses, raises, promotions
When an employee considers the balance between inputs and outputs to be fair—that is, they believe they are being compensated and treated fairly—then their motivation will be maintained. If the balance is perceived to be unfair—for example, if they believe someone else is being unfairly promoted ahead of them or being rewarded for inferior work/effort—they can become demotivated.
What qualities should be developed and embodied by a leader
Self motivated and self disciplined.
comfortable with risk taking
Committed to continuous learning
Embody a growth mindset (belief that talents and skills can be developed. See’s potential in staff
Basic framework for ethical decision making
Recognize ethical situations as they arise.
Establish the facts about the situation.
Evaluate the ethical dimensions of possible actions.
Apply relevant codes of ethics and behavior to the options.
Consult with others
Make a decision, own it, and learn from one’s mistakes
What is transparency
Transparency commits an organization to providing information about how and why decisions have been made.
Code of conduct
Principles of conduct within an organization that guide decision making and behavior
creating an effective code of conduct
- Gather information
-draft and review
-adopt the code formally and -communication it to the organization
-monitor enforcement
-Evaluate and revise the code periodically
two parts of code of conduct
Value based and rule based
The values-based part describes the organization’s principles and obligations to its internal and external stakeholders. These values underlie or explain the rationale behind the rules that follow.
The rules-based part of the code of conduct defines the organization’s ethical expectations. It includes:
Ethical and conduct guidelines (for example, policies regarding conflict of interest, bribery/corruption, confidentiality, privacy, harassment).
Impostor syndrome
A feeling that one’s success is due to luck, not hard work or skill; can lead individuals to feeling unfit for their current role.
Covering
Defensive behavior that occurs when an organization recruits a diverse workforce but, consciously or otherwise, promotes assimilation rather than inclusion.
Inclusion
Extent to which each person in an organization feels welcomed, respected, supported, and valued as a team member.
Neurodiversity
Refers to a workforce that approaches problems using different conceptual thought approaches that may stem from atypical brain structure, for example, attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and anything categorized as existing on the autism spectrum (autism spectrum disorder, or ASD).
Diversity
The similarities and differences between individuals, accounting for all aspects of one’s personality and individual identity.
Cultural taxation
Additional workload that is generated for members of an underrepresented group due to their requested participation in I&D efforts.
Employee resource group (ERG)
Voluntary group for employees who share a particular diversity dimension (race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.); also known as affinity group or network group.
Three Types of Diversity
Legacy
Experiential
Thought
Legacy Diversity
Generally, traits that are easily recognizable and visible, such as external physical characteristics. Culture, ethnicity/race, nationality, gender, physical attributes, age, and language are all examples of legacy diversity traits.
Experiential diversity.
Diversity based on lived experiences, for example, where an employee grew up, where they went to school, and other life experiences (family, hobbies, interests). Employees with similar or shared experiences can form connections and work well together. At the same time, these bonds can result in the formation of cliques, which can have an exclusionary effect in some cases.
Thought diversity.
Diversity based on different perspectives, resulting from education and socioeconomic background. Introducing thought diversity can help guard against “group think,” inject new insights into decision making, and help identify prime candidates to tackle urgent problems and issues.
Stakeholder Concept
Proposes that any org operates with a complex environment in which it affects and is affected by a variety of forces or stakeholders who all share in the value of the organization and its activities. Business objectives may be more complex, shaped by needs of various groups
Types of conflict
Accommodate
Assert/compete (or force)
Avoid
Collaborate (or confront)
Compromise
Accommodate (or smooth)
The leader restores good relations by emphasizing agreement and downplaying disagreement.
Useful when there is little time to be lost and movement forward is needed. It does not, however, address the root conflict. If the group continues, the conflict will probably recur.
Assert/compete (or force)
The leader imposes a solution. One side wins and the other loses—hence the term “win/lose” conflict resolution.
Useful in a crisis because it resolves the issue quickly; also when authority is being challenged or when the impact on future relations with the group is minimal. Like accommodation, it does not permanently address the problem.
Avoid
The leader withdraws from the situation or accepts it, leaving the conflict to be resolved by others or remain unresolved.
Useful when the conflict will resolve soon without any direct intervention or when the conflict or relationship is not worth the time investment. Leaders should be aware that avoiding conflict can weaken their role in the organization and may damage the group by leaving a problem unresolved or allowing it to be poorly resolved.
Collaborate (or confront)
The leader and those in conflict accept the fact that they disagree and look for a “third way,” a new solution to the problem of the conflict. Since both sides contribute to the solution, this may be seen as “win/win” conflict resolution.
Useful when the stakes are high, relationships are important, and time allows. (It does require time and strong interpersonal skills.) There is greater chance for an enduring, equitable, mutually satisfying resolution.
Compromise
The leader asks those in conflict to bargain—altering positions on different issues until a mutually acceptable solution is defined. The solution relies on concessions. For this reason, it is often referred to as “lose/lose” conflict resolution.
The leader asks those in conflict to bargain—altering positions on different issues until a mutually acceptable solution is defined. The solution relies on concessions. For this reason, it is often referred to as “lose/lose” conflict resolution.
Soft negotiators
value the relationship more than the outcome and will back down on issues in the interest of reaching agreement—even if they are no longer getting what they need.
Hard negotiator
committed to winning, even at the cost of the relationship. These negotiators may pursue position-based bargaining, which views negotiation as a zero-sum exercise and relies on parties staking out opposite positions and slowly making concessions until an agreement is made (or negotiations break off entirely).
principled negotiation
the negotiators aim for mutual gain, applying a process developed by Roger Fisher and William Ury called interest-based relational negotiating or integrative bargaining. Fisher and Ury emphasize the need to focus on the problem instead of personal differences and on mutually beneficial outcomes rather than hard positions. Principled negotiators can separate people from positions. They identify common interests and make them a goal of the negotiation. They are also creative: They come to the negotiation prepared with different options that may satisfy both sides. In principled negotiation, the goal is a win-win solution, requiring some sacrifice of position from each side in order to gain meaningful points.
six phases of negotiation
Preparation
Relationship Building
Information Exchange
Persuasion
Concessions
Agreement
BATNA
best alternative to a negotiated agreement.
Communication Model (verbage)
Communicator
Message
Medium
Receiver
Feedback
Communicator-message link.
It may be sent to the wrong person.
The information may be wrong or insufficient or not what the receiver needs.
The communicator’s attempt to appear confident may be perceived as rudeness.
The message may rely on technical, historical, or cultural knowledge the receiver does not have.
Message-medium link.
The message may be sent at the wrong time or in the wrong manner or form.
Medium-receiver link
The receiver may misunderstand the message.
Receiver-communicator link
The feedback loop does not operate well.
what is framing
used in discussion with communication. reflects process of getting an audience to see communicated facts in a certain way
what are some elements to being an impactful communicator
- Posture and movement
-Gesture
-Eye Contact (soft not piercing) - Vocal qualities.
what is a global mindset
the ability to take an international, multidimensional perspective that is inclusive of others cultures, perspectives and views
what are the tools hr has to create a global mindset
Travel, Teams, Training and transfers
what is culture
Set of beliefs, attitudes, values and perspectives on how the world works
What are the layers of cultures
Explicit Culture (Artifacts and products)
Norms and values
Implicit Culture (Basic Assumptions)
Cultural intelligence
capacity to recognize, interpret and behaviorally adapt to multicultural situations and contexts
Culture vs Climate
Culture is the result of shared beliefs
climate may result from the actions of a few individuals or external forces.
Three aspects of cultural intelligence
Cognitive, including thinking, learning, and strategizing. This involves developing a knowledge of cultural differences and similarities and being able to use that knowledge to determine how best to handle a cross-cultural situation.
Motivational, including effectiveness, confidence, persistence, value congruence, and the level of attraction toward a new culture. This quality enables one to genuinely enjoy cultural differences rather than feeling threatened or intimidated by them.
Behavioral, including an individual’s range of possible actions and responses to intercultural encounters. This quality enables one to be flexible and adapt in multicultural contexts.
Edward T. Hall—high- and low-context cultures
Context level affects communication and relationships:
High-context culture—A statement’s meaning includes the verbal message and the nonverbals and social and historic content attached to the statement.
Low-context culture—A statement’s meaning is encoded in its words only.
Geert Hofstede—dimensions of culture
Six dimensions:
Power distance—Pattern of distribution of power to culture’s members.
Individualism/collectivism—Degree to which individuals perceive themselves as members of a group.
Uncertainty avoidance—Level of tolerance of ambiguous, new, or changed situations.
Masculine/feminine—Degree to which a culture follows traditional gender characterizations (masculine as rigid and competitive, feminine as nurturing and sharing).
Long-term/short-term—Long-term cultures focus on traditions and tend to resist change; short-term cultures are more pragmatic and see the positive potential of change.
Indulgence/restraint—Gratification of individual desires.
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner—cultural dilemmas
Seven dilemmas that illustrate points of cultural tension:
Universal/particular—Flexibility versus rules.
Individual/communitarian—The good that drives decisions (the individual or society as a whole).
Neutral/affective—Expression of emotion.
Specific/diffuse—Public and private boundaries.
Achieved/ascribed—Source of merit (personal accomplishment or connection).
Sequential/synchronic—Sense of time (linear and limited or cyclical and expansive).
Internal/external—Individual control over one’s destiny.
Power distance
Extent to which less-powerful members of organizations and institutions accept unequal distribution of power
Example Countries
High: Malaysia, Latin America, Middle East, China, Indonesia, India
Low: Austria, Israel, Scandinavian countries, U.K., U.S.
Individualism/collectivism
Hofstede’s Dimensions and Global HR
Degree to which individuals are integrated into groups
Individualism: Ties are loose, self-reliance valued
Collectivism: Strong, cohesive groups; protection is exchanged for loyalty to group
Example Countries
Individual: U.S., Australia, U.K., Netherlands, Italy, Belgium
Collective: Latin America, Pakistan, Indonesia, South Korea, China
Uncertainty avoidance
Hofstede’s Dimensions and Global HR
Level of tolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity; extent to which individuals feel comfortable in unstructured, new, or unexpected situations
Example Countries
High: Greece, Portugal, Latin America, Belgium, Japan, France
Low: Singapore, Denmark, Sweden, U.K.
Masculine/feminine
Hofstede’s Dimensions and Global HR
Masculine traits: Ambitious, tendency to polarize, oriented toward work and achievement
Feminine traits: Nurturing, empathetic, oriented toward quality of life, striving for consensus, favoring small size and slow pace
Note: In masculine societies, gender roles are distinct; in feminine societies, roles may overlap.
Example Countries
Masculine: Japan, Hungary, Austria, Venezuela, Italy
Feminine: Scandinavian countries, Netherlands, Chile, Thailand
Long-term/short-term
Hofstede’s Dimensions and Global HR
Long-term orientation: Uses traditional norms and customs to guide action. Values thrift, perseverance; orders relationships by status and values.
Short-term orientation: Makes decisions based on likely results. Values pragmatism.
Example Countries
Long-term: China, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, India
Indulgence/restraint
Hofstede’s Dimensions and Global HR
Indulgence: Enjoyment of life and freedom in gratifying desires
Restraint: Suppression of desires in order to meet social norms
Example Countries
Indulgence: Most North and South American countries
Restraint: Russia and Baltic countries, Italy, India, China
Universal/particular
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
A universal culture esteems consistency, clarity, and impartiality. Rules for each case ensure fairness.
A particular culture is flexible, pragmatic, and comfortable with ambiguity. It considers the case and its context first and will make exceptions; fairness is achieved by considering many factors and relationships.
Example Countries
Universal: Switzerland, Canada, U.S., Sweden, U.K.
Particular: Venezuela, Korea, Russia, China, Portugal
Individual/communitarian (collectivist)
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
To an individualist, a good society is one in which there is freedom and opportunity to advance oneself.
To a communitarian, a good society is achieved when we all take care of each other, even if this means loss of personal freedom or opportunity.
Example Countries
Individual: Israel, Canada, U.S., Denmark
Communitarian: Egypt, Mexico, India, Japan, France
Neutral/affective
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
A neutral society disapproves of public expressions of emotion.
In affective cultures, individuals express emotions freely.
Example Countries
Neutral: Ethiopia, Japan, China, India
Affective: Kuwait, Egypt, Spain, Russia, Argentina
Specific/diffuse
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
People in specific cultures have open public lives but a strong boundary between public and private lives.
People in diffuse cultures allow access to their public lives only through introduction by a trusted associate, but when access is granted, it includes access to the person’s private life.
Achieved/ascribed
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
In an achieved culture, individuals are valued according to their own accomplishments (what they do).
In an ascribed culture, value may be derived from social factors, like position, wealth, family, or gender (who they are).
Example Countries
Achieved: U.S., Australia, Canada, U.K., Netherlands
Ascribed: Egypt, Argentina, Czech Republic, Korea, Poland
Sequential/synchronic
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
Sequential cultures see time as linear and an important part of life. Planning, keeping appointments, and making productive use of time are important. The future is more important than the past.
Synchronic cultures see time as large enough to accommodate multiple activities at the same time. They can also accommodate delays if a change is necessary to support a relationship. The past and the present are just as important or more important than the future.
Example Countries
Sequential: U.S., Japan, Netherlands
Synchronic: France, Spain, Belgium
Internal/external
Trompenaars’s and Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas and Global HR
In an internal world, individuals can decide and follow their own paths. One can dominate nature.
In an external world, human beings are part of a larger scheme that directs the course of events. Individuals can only adapt, not create. They must submit to nature. Zeynep Aycan (2005) refers to this dimension as “fatalism.”
Example Countries
Internal: Israel, Norway, U.S., U.K., France
External: Venezuela, China, Russia, Kuwait, Singapore
