Lab Exam 1 Flashcards
what are percentage solutions?
percentage = parts per 100 percent = (wt. of solute/wt. of solution) x 100
what is in one mole?
6.02 x 10^23 molecules of a particular substance
what is one molar?
one mole of a substance dissolved in 1 liter of solution
what is molecular weight used for?
calculating molarity
molarity =
mol/liter
how do you get to milli molarity?
multiple by 1000
what is an acid?
substance that dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+)
what is an base?
substance that dissociates into hydroxyl ions (OH-)
pH =
-log[H+]
[H+] =
10-^pH
what is a buffer?
substance that prevents a drastic pH change when acids or bases are added to a solution
why do we want weak acids to form?
buffers
what are the three major buffers in the body?
proteins
phosphates
bicarbonates
which is the most important blood buffer?
bicarbonates
what is the less abundant buffer?
phosphate
what is the more abundant buffer?
proteins
what two systems help regulate the bicarbonate system?
renal
respiratory
what is a bar graph?
used when the independent variables are distinct entities
what is a histogram?
used to quantify the distribution of one variable over a range of values
what is a line graph?
used when the independent variable is a continuous phenomenon
what is a scatter plot?
used to show the relationship between two variables
-best fit line
what do cell membranes serve as?
barriers to the movement of substances into and out of cells
why is the transportation of molecules and ions across cell membranes important?
homeostasis
what are membranes mainly constructed of?
phospholipids
what are pores?
holes in the cell membrane
-channel proteins
what is diffusion?
the random movement of molecules due to their internal kinetic energy
what is net diffusion?
particle results when there is a difference in concentration between two regions of a system
what is a concentration gradient?
particles will diffuse from the region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
-will continue until it reaches equilibrium
what is equilibrium?
when the concentration of the molecules is equal throughout the volume of the solution
what is Fick’s Law of Diffusion?
describes the rate at which net diffusion occurs
what is osmosis?
the movement of water across a membrane in response to a solute concentration gradient
when does osmosis occur?
whenever a higher concentration of solute is separated from a lower concentration of solute by a membrane
-difficult for solute to cross the membrane
what happens if the solute can not cross the membrane?
the water moves across the membrane
what is osmotic pressure?
the force of water movement across the membrane
what does osmotic pressure depend on?
the number of particles in the solution
what is osmolality?
of particles/L solution
what is osmol/L?
M x #P/molecule
what is tonicity?
property of a solution in reference to a particular membrane
what is the normal osmotic pressure of most cells?
300 mOsM
what is isotonic?
any solution that contains an equal number of osmotically active particles as that produced by the cellular constituents
around 300
what is hypertonic?
a solution that exerts a greater osmotic pressure than the cell contents
above 300
shirks
what is hypotonic?
a solution that exerts a lower osmotic pressure than the cell contents
below 300
swell
back
dorsal
stomach
ventral
towards head
cranial
towards tail
caudal
towards nose
rostral
front leg
palmar
back leg
plantar
towards middle
medial
towards outside
lateral
towards sky
proximal
towards ground
distal
towards skin
superficial
more in muscle
deep
what are the three different body cavities?
cranial
thoracic
abdominal - pelvic
outer ear
pinnae
vibrissae
wiskers
nose
nares
teeth
incisors
what organ does a rat not have?
gal bladder
what colors are veins and where do they go?
veins are blue
carry blood toward heart
what colors are arteries and where do they go?
arteries are red
carry blood away from the heart
what are the three main sections to the brain?
cerebrum
cerebellum
brainstem
what are fissures?
major grooves and folds in the brain
what is the longitudinal fissure?
separates left and right
what is the transverse fissure?
on the side of the brain
what is the lateral fissure?
where the cerebellum starts
what are the ridges on the brain called?
gyri
what are the small grooves and folds on the brain called?
sulci
-central sulcus
what do sulci do?
separate the different lobes of the brain
what does the pituitary gland do?
controls many hormonal signals throughout the body
what does the pineal gland do?
regulates ovarian activity
produces melatonin
what are the four lobes of the cerebrum?
frontal
parietal
occipital
temporal
what are the four different parts of the brain stem?
diencephalon
mesencephalon
pons
medulla oblongata
what are the two parts of the diencephalon?
thalamus
hypothalamus
how many ventricles are there?
4
what is the 1st and 2nd ventricle?
corpus collasum
what is the 3rd ventricle?
thalamus & corpus collasum
what is the 4th ventricle?
brainstem
is there more gray or white in the spinal cord?
more white
is there more gray or white in the frontal lobe?
more gray
what does the white matter in the brain do?
sends information
intragrating center
what does the gray matter in the brain do?
receives information
processes information
what does the cerebellum do?
fine muscle movement
-leafy like appearance
what does the thalamus do?
sifts out useless data
-major relay center
what does the hypothalamus do?
controls most autonomic output endocrine control controls drives (rage, thirst, appetite)
what does the mesencephalon do?
controls eye movement
relays signals for auditory and visual reflexes
what does the pons do?
coordination of breathing
relay between cerebrum and cerebellum
what does the medulla oblongata do?
control of involuntary functions
swallowing, breathing, vomiting
what does the corpus callosum do?
connects the left and the right side of the brain
what do the ventricles do?
produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
- creates chemical and physical protection
- reabsorbed through the arachnoid villi
what does the optic chiasma do?
points where the right and left optic nerves
-white Y shape
what does the olfactory bulbs do?
early processing of olfactory input
what does the frontal lobe do?
fine muscle movement
social behaviors
gustatory cortex
what does the parietal lobe do?
somatic sensory cortex
touch, skin pressure, temperature
what does the occipital lobe do?
controls sight
what does the temporal lobe do?
controls hearing
what do the relative weights of the various brain regions tell us about the function of the brain?
increase in weight, increase in information process and storage
why is the cerebral cortex folded to such a great extent?
to have more surface area and be able to process more information
what are some examples of a short bone?
carpal
tarsal
what are some examples of a flat bone?
skull ribs pelvis sternum scapula
what are some examples of a sesamoid bone?
patella
proximal
distal
sesamoid bone
what are some examples of a irregular bone?
vertebra
facial bones
what is the diaphysis?
long shaft
-medullary cavity is in the diaphysis
what is the epiphysis?
end of the bone
what is the epiphyseal plate?
growth plate
what is the metaphysis?
joining point
what is the apophysis?
bumps on the bone
what is articular cartilage?
smooth layer
-surface
what is the periosteum?
on the outside of the bone along the diaphysis around the medullary cavity
what is the endosteum?
inside of the bone around the medullary cavity
what is the medullary cavity?
marrow cavity
-within diaphysis
what is the compact bone?
outer layer around the bone
hard
white
what is the cortex?
compact bone around the medullary cavity
what is the cancellous bone?
red marrow
located in the epiphysis
cow vertebrae
C7 T13 L6 S5 Cd18-20
what are the steps of longitudinal bone growth?
- originally cartilage
- osteoblast replace cartilage with osteoid
- plate pushes metaphysis and diaphysis apart
- estrogen and testosterone speed up growth
what do ossification centers do?
add calcium
what is the hormone that speeds up growth?
IGF-1
what are the steps of diametrical bone growth?
increases the circumference
continues to grow throughout the whole life
what are the two germinal layers required for longitudinal bone growth?
periosteum
endosteum
what is a joint?
union of junction between two or more bones of the skeleton
what are fibrous or immovable joints?
little to no movement
skull, pelvis
what are cartilaginous or slightly movable joints?
united by cartilage
minimally moveable
spinal column, ribs
what are synovial or freely moveable joints?
united by a joint capsule
can move freely
carpal, limbs
what bone structure is responsible for longitudinal bone growth?
epiphyseal plate
what cell types do periosteum and endosteum contain, and what are their differences?
osteoclast: break down
osteoblast: create
what are some characteristics of cancellous bone?
sponge like
found at end of medullary cavity
referred to as red marrow
the site of white and red blood cell production
what is yellow marrow composed of?
fat
adipose tissue
what type of marrow is for younger animals?
more red
what type of marrow is for older animals?
more yellow
what does the skeletal muscle have?
millions of specialized cells
what does a motor unit consist of?
one motor neuron
all the muscle fibers it innervates
what happens when the motor neuron stimulates the cells?
they will contract simultaneously
what controls the stimulation of motor units?
central nervous system
what are the requirements for a motor neuron?
- depends on force needed
- if greater force is needed more motor units will be activated, and threshold will determine when neurons are stimulated
what is asynchronous firing?
muscle AP length vs. muscle contraction length
if frequency of motor neurons AP increases…
-smooth contractions can occur
-tetanus can occur
-prevents fatigue
what is electromyography?
placing electrodes on the skin at either end of a muscle and monitor action potential activity within the muscle
what is a dynamometer?
measures force of grip/squeeze
what is the flexor carpi radial muscle?
located in forearm
flexes fingers
important for grip force
