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Animal Physiology (260) > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what does homeostasis require?

A

communication

cells and tissue must remain intergrated

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2
Q

what are the different types of signals?

A

electrical - nervous

chemical - endocrine

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3
Q

what are the four methods of cell-to-cell communication?

A
  1. gap junctions
  2. contact-dependent
  3. local communication
  4. long distant communication
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4
Q

what is gap junctions?

A

simplest of communication

has connexins

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5
Q

what are connexins?

A

allow ions to pass between cells via a channel (Conn exon)

  • creates electrical continuity between cells
  • ions, small molecules
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6
Q

what is the only way electrical signals are carried between cells?

A

connexins

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7
Q

where are gap junctions found?

A

myocardium
intestinal smooth muscle
uterine smooth muscle

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8
Q

what are contact-dependent signals?

A

require direct contact between surface molecules of 2 cells

CAM can act as receptors

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9
Q

where are contact-dependent signals found?

A

immune system
growth
development

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10
Q

what is local communication?

A

chemical reaches target via diffusion through interstitial fluid
ex: cytokines
eicosanoids

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11
Q

what are the three different types of local communication?

A

autocrine
paracrine
juxtacrine

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12
Q

what is autocrine?

A

acts on cell of origin

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13
Q

what is paracrine?

A

acts on adjacent cells

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14
Q

what is juxtacrine?

A

may act on both cell of origin and adjacent cells

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15
Q

what are some types of long distance communication?

A

endocrine

nervous

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16
Q

what is endocrine communication?

A

hormonal signaling

chemical signal carried by circulatory system

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17
Q

what is nervous communication?

A

very rapid and targeted response

electrical signal through neuron, then chemical secreted at end (neurocrine)

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18
Q

what is a ligand?

A

a molecule that binds to a receptor

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19
Q

what is a receptor?

A

a protein that binds a ligand and creates a response

may be membrane bound or floating in cytosol

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20
Q

what are all the parts of a signal pathway?

A 
signal molecule
membrane receptor protein 
intracellular signal molecule
target protein 
response
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21
Q

what are the two categories of chemical signals?

A

lipophilic

lipophobic

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22
Q

what is a lipophilic chemical signal?

A

bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors
activation turns on gene and mRNA is made
very slow process

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23
Q

what is a lipophobic chemical signal?

A

bind to receptors on cell membrane
fast process
4 receptor types

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24
Q

what are the four different lipophobic receptor types?

A

receptor-channel
receptor-enzyme
G protein-coupled receptor
integrin receptor

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25
Q

what is a receptor channel?

A

ligand binding opens or closes the channel

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26
Q

what is a receptor enzyme?

A

ligand binding to a receptor enzyme activates an intracellular enzyme

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27
Q

what is a G protein coupled receptor?

A

ligand binding to a G protein-coupled receptor opens an ion channel or alters enzyme activity

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28
Q

what is an integrin receptor?

A

ligand binding to integrin receptors alter the cytoskeleton

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29
Q

what is signal transduction?

A

transmission of information from one side of a membrane to the other using a membrane protein

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30
Q

what are the three novel signal molecules?

A

calcium
NO
CO

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31
Q

what is calcium used for?

A 
most versatile ionic messenger
Ca2+
binds to calmodulin 
bind/alter movement of microtubules 
trigger exocytosis
alter gate state of ion channels
enter fertilized eggs
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32
Q

what is NO used for?

A
  • result of synthesis of arginine by NOS

- diffuses into cell, binds to gaunylyl cyclase and forms cGMP

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33
Q

what is CO used for?

A

similar to NO

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34
Q

what is modulation of signal pathways?

A

specificity and competition

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35
Q

what are the two classifications of a ligand?

A

agonist

antagonist

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36
Q

what is an agonist ligand?

A

molecule binds to a receptor and causes a response

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37
Q

what is an antagonist ligand?

A

molecule binds to a receptor and results in no response

“blocks”

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38
Q

what are signal pathways?

A

cells capable of changing the number of available receptors to modulate a response
-deals with saturation of proteins and ligands

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39
Q

what is upregulation?

A

an increase in the number of available receptors

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40
Q

what is down regulation?

A

a decrease in the number of available receptors

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41
Q

what is termination of signal pathway?

A

removes signal molecule

breaks down receptor ligand complex via endocytosis

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42
Q

what are Cannon’s postulates?

A
  1. nervous system has role in preserving fitness of the internal environment
    - homeostasis
  2. some systems are under tonic control
    - blood vessel diameter
  3. some systems are under antagonistic control
    - insulin and glucagon
  4. one chemical signal can have different effects in different tissue
    - epinephrine
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43
Q

what is the control system?

A

regulated variables have a set point and normal range

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44
Q

what is a set point?

A

optimum value

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45
Q

what is local control?

A

isolated change in vicinity of cell/tissue
paracrine/autocrine response
ex: O2 in tissue

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46
Q

what is reflex control?

A

long distance
coordination of reaction outside organ of response
-systemic
uses nervous and/or endocrine

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47
Q

what is reflex control?

A

long distance
coordination of reaction outside organ of response
-systemic
uses nervous and/or endocrine

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48
Q

what are the two parts of physiological reflex?

A

response loop

feedback loop

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49
Q

for reflex control, what are the two different kinds of input signals?

A

stimulus

sensor

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50
Q

what is stimulus?

A

disturbance or change
sets pathway in motion
ex: temperature, O2, blood pressure

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51
Q

what is a sensor?

A

NOT protein receptors
specialized cells: central or peripheral
must reach threshold: range or limit

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52
Q

what is a central sensor?

A

head:

eyes, ears, nose, tongue

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53
Q

what are peripheral receptors?

A

every thing that isn’t a central sensor

ex: pressure, temp, pain, touch

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54
Q

for reflex control, what are input signals?

A

depends on the type of reflex

  • neural: sensory neuron
  • endocrine: no pathway
55
Q

what is special about endocrine input signal?

A

there is no pathway

gland releases hormone and doesn’t have to send a message

56
Q

for reflex control, what is the integrator?

A

the cell that receives information about the change and is programmed to initiate a response
-can have one or multiple stimuli

57
Q

where does the endocrine reflex take place?

A

the endocrine cell

58
Q

where does the neural reflex take place?

A

within the central nervous system

59
Q

for reflex control, what are output signals?

A

efferent pathway
neural vs. endocrine
signal vs. route

60
Q

for reflex control, what is a target?

A

cells/tissues that carry out the response

neural: muscle, glands, some adipose

61
Q

for reflex control, what are the levels of responses?

A

cellular and systemic

62
Q

what are the three different types of set points?

A

acclimatization
acclimation
biological rhythms

63
Q

what is acclimatization?

A

adaptation of physiological processes to a given set of natural environmental conditions

64
Q

what is acclimation?

A

adaptation of physiological processes to a given set of artificially induced conditions

65
Q

what are biological rhythms?

A

regulated variables predictably change

66
Q

what is a feedback loop?

A

a way to modulate the response

  • information about the response sent back to integrating center
  • can be positive or negative
67
Q

what is a negative feedback loop?

A

more common
the response opposes and removes the stimulus
occurs in most reflexes
homeostatic

68
Q

what is a positive feedback loop?

A

response reinforces the stimulus
not homeostatic
rarely occurs in the body

69
Q

what is endocrinology?

A

the study of hormones

70
Q

what are hormones?

A

chemical messenger secreted into the body by specialized cells

71
Q

what makes a chemical hormone?

A 
secreted by cell glands
secreted into blood
transported to distant target
exert effects at low concentrations (nano-pico)
act by binding to receptors 
action must be terminated
72
Q

what are the three chemical classes of hormones?

A

proteins/peptides - insulin, oxytocin, ACTH
amines - dopamine, epinephrine
steroids - cortisol, progesterone, vit D

73
Q

how else can you classify hormones?

A

source
how their release is controlled
type of receptor they bind to

74
Q

what is half life?

A

how long you have until you have half the concentration

75
Q

what is the most common type of hormone?

A

peptide

76
Q

what are steroid hormones?

A 
derived from cholesterol 
origin: adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta
made in ER 
released via diffusion 
not soluble in plasma/body fluids
77
Q

what are amine hormones?

A

created from tryptophan or tyrosine
tryptophan: melatonin
tyrosine: all others
similar to thyroid

78
Q

what are catecholamines?

A

neurohormones

-bind the way peptide hormones do

79
Q

what is the simple control of hormone release?

A

endocrine cell senses stimulus and responds by secretion

ex: PTH, insulin, glucagon

80
Q

what is the complex control of hormone release?

A

add nervous system

  • adrenal medulla: catecholamines
  • hypothalamus/pituitary: lots
81
Q

what is the function of hypothalamus and pituitary glands?

A

provide major endocrine control
the hypothalamus receives electrical signals from the brain
-causing the release of tropic hormones that will affect the pituitary gland

82
Q

what is a tropic hormone?

A

acts on another target (gland) to release more hormones

83
Q

what is the pituitary considered?

A

the master gland

84
Q

what are the two distinct regions of the pituitary gland?

A

anterior (adenohypophysis)

posterior (neurohypophysis)

85
Q

what does the anterior region of the pituitary gland do?

A

production and storage center for these 6 hormones:

  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • somatotropin (GH)
  • prolactin (PRL)
  • Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH)
86
Q

what does the posterior region of the pituitary gland do?

A

storage center for these two hormones

  • oxytocin
  • vasopressin/ADH
87
Q

what is glucagon?

A

increase in glucose

88
Q

what is synergism hormone interaction?

A

the combination of 2 hormones yields a result greater than the additive
ex: glucagon, epinephrine, and cortisol

89
Q

what is permissive hormone interaction?

A

one hormone cannot exert effects unless a 2nd hormone is present
ex: thyroid and reproductive system

90
Q

what is antagonistic hormone interaction?

A

1 hormone opposes action of another

ex: insulin & glucagon

91
Q

what is hypersecretion?

A

hormone present in excessive amounts
ex: graves disease - thyroid hormone (TH)
giantism/acromegaly - somatotropin
cushings disease - ACTH, cortisol

92
Q

what is hyposecretion?

A 
deficiency of hormone
ex: dwarfism - somatotropin
hashimoto's disease - thyroid hormone
addisons's - ACTH, cortisol
diabetes mellitus - insulin
93
Q

what do most clinical endocrine issues result from?

A

hypersecretion

hyposecretion

94
Q

what are the two different divisions of the nervous system?

A

central

peripheral

95
Q

what is the central nervous system?

A

brain and spinal cord

surrounded by the meninges

96
Q

what are meninges?

A

layers of protective membranes that are specific the central nervous system

97
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system?

A

all outlying neurons

98
Q

what are the two types of peripheral neurons?

A

afferent

efferent

99
Q

what are afferent neurons?

A

sensory

detect stimuli

100
Q

what are efferent neurons?

A

motor

trigger responses

101
Q

what are the two different types of cells of the nervous system?

A

neurons

glial cells

102
Q

what are neurons?

A 
functional unit of nervous system 
an excitable tissue
send electrical signals throughout the body
-rapid
-direct
-uses processes up to 1m
103
Q

what are glial cells?

A

support cell

104
Q

what do neurons release into the ECF?

A

chemical signals

105
Q

what doe neurons rely on to send signals?

A

ion disequilibrium across the cell membrane

106
Q

what is the structure of a neuron?

A 
specialized structure
cell body
dendrites
dendritic spines
axon hillock 
axon
myelin sheaths
axon terminus
107
Q

what does the cell body of a neuron contain?

A

nucleus and most organelles

108
Q

what does the dendrites in the neuron do?

A

receive information

increase surface area

109
Q

what do the dendritic spines in the neuron do?

A

increase surface area

110
Q

what does the axon hillock in the neuron do?

A

where the axon connects

action potential starts here

111
Q

what does the axon in the neuron do?

A

sends signals

112
Q

what do the myelin sheaths in the neuron do?

A

helps isolate the signal

113
Q

what does the axon terminus do?

A

terminates the signal

goes into the mitochondria

114
Q

what are the two different types of axonal transport?

A

slow

fast

115
Q

what is slow axonal transport?

A

uses cytoplasmic flow

ex: enzymes, protein

116
Q

what is fast axonal transport?

A

uses microtubules

ex: vesicles, microtubules

117
Q

what are the different structures of a neuron?

A

pseudounipolar
bipolar
anaxonic
multipolar

118
Q

what is a pseudounipolar neuron?

A

axon and dendrites fused together

touch and pain sensory neuron

119
Q

what is a bipolar neuron?

A

only one dendrite

retinal and olfactory neuron

120
Q

what is a anaxonic neuron?

A

lots of dendrites
no axon
amacrine cell

121
Q

what is a multipolar neuron?

A

multiple neurons with and axon
motor neuron
pyramidal neuron
purkinje cell

122
Q

what are the different types of functions of a neuron?

A

sensory
interneuron
efferent

123
Q

what is the sensory neuron function?

A

input signal
carry information from sensor to CNS (temp, pressure, light)
structures differ in length and organization
somatic senses: psuedounipolar
neurons for smell and vision: bipolar

124
Q

what is the interneuron neuron function?

A 
integrating center 
lies entirely within the CNS 
complex branching - allows easy communication with many neurons
quite small 
structure: anaxonic or multipolar
125
Q

what is the efferent neuron function?

A 
output signal
includes somatic motor and automatic 
very similar to a model neuron 
axon bundled with CT = nerves 
always multipolar
126
Q

why are glial cells important?

A

important physical/biochem support for neurons

127
Q

what is membrane potential?

A

the difference in energy across a membrane

128
Q

what causes membrane potential?

A

diffusion and active transport of ionos
intracellular: negative
extracellular: positive
total body overall is neutral

129
Q

what is the primary ion that determines resting membrane potential?

A

K+

creates disequilibrium

130
Q

how is Na-K-ATPase implicated in membrane potentials?

A

K+ plus determines membrane potential

for every 2K+ 3Na+ is needed

131
Q

what are the two factors that influence membrane potential?

A
  1. concentration gradient of ions

2. permeability of membrane -gated channel

132
Q

how many ions does it take to change membrane potential?

A

a few

133
Q

what changes when membrane potential changes?

A

permeability

Animal Physiology (260) (6 decks)

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