Exam 1 Flashcards
what is physiology?
the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts
what are the body systems that link to the outside of the body?
digestive system
respiratory system
reproductive system
urinary system
what are the body systems that send signals?
endocrine system
nervous system
what is the body system that is the highway of the body?
cardiovascular/circulatory system
what is the body system that deals with movement?
musculoskeletal system
what are the body systems that deal with protection?
immune system
integument/skin system
what does function stand for?
it asks that why?
what does process stand for?
its asks the how?
what are the four different themes of physiology?
- homeostasis and control
- biological energy use
- structure/function relationship
- communication/information flow
what does homeostasis mean?
maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
it depends on Mass balance
lots of fluid goes in –> lots of fluid goes out
what does biological energy use do?
processes needed fuel
energy comes from ATP
uses synthesis, breakdown, and transport
what does structure/function relationship do?
structure dictates function
molecular interaction
compartments
what does communication/information flow do?
system all work together
signals will be electrical or chemical
signals will be local or long distance
what is an example of an electrical signal?
neurons
what is an example of an chemical signal?
endocrines and nervous system
what is an example of molecule interaction?
enzymes signal molecules receptor proteins
what is the role of compartments?
membranes
play an important role in homeostasis
what are the two main types of fluids cavities?
intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid
what are two example of extracellular fluid?
plasma
interstitial fluid
what are the 3 major body cavities?
cranial
thoracic
abdominopelvic
what are some advantages of having different body compartments?
- greater control over expression of genetic material
- separation of self-destructive enzyme from remainder of cell
- isolate proteins for export from internally used ones
what are some disadvantages of having different body compartments?
hard to communicate
lots of steps
who came up with a theory on cellular function?
Theodor Schwann in 1839
what was the theory that Theodor Schwann came up with?
- all living things are made up of cells and their products
- new cells are created by old cells
what is a prokaryotic cell?
has no nucleus
have nucleoid
no internal cellular compartments
what is a eukaryotic cell?
has nucleus -has genetic material -separated by a membrane remainder of cell is cytoplasm -has internal cellular compartments ex: yeast and higher organisms
what is cytosol?
intercellular fluid
what are some example of membranous organelles?
mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum golgi apparatus lysosomes peroxisomes
what are some examples of inclusions?
lipid droplets
glycogen granules
ribosomes
what is the function of the nucleus?
maintain hereditary continuity of the organism
-direct cell function via control of protein synthesis
what is the exterior structure of the nucleus?
spherical shape
bounded by nuclear envelope
what is the nuclear envelope and what does it do?
double-walled membrane and pores
pores control the passage of mRNA out of nucleus
what is the inside structure of the nucleus?
chromatin
histones
enzymes
nucleolus
what is chromatin?
DNA + histones
euchromatin
heterochromatin
what is euchromatin?
active genes
what is heterochromatin?
inactive genes
what are histones?
proteins
most conserved animal protein
hold DNA in place and protect it
what are enzymes?
RNA and DNA synthesis
what does the nucleolus do?
carries out rRNA synthesis
how many nuclei are there in a cell?
not all eukaryotic cells have 1 nucleus
- red blood cells have non when they are mature
- muscle cells have many when they are mature
- -> both are uninucleated during development
what is the cytoskeleton?
a network of proteins that carry out the following functions for the cell: shape and structure movement internal organization intracellular transport cell connections
what are the three cytoplasmic protein fibers?
microfilaments
intermediate fibers
microtubules
what is a microfilament?
it is the smallest cytoplasmic protein fibers
actin is the most common protein
muscle contractions
form a filament right inside the cell membrane
what is a intermediate fiber?
most stable protein
myosin, keratin, neurofilament
provide cell shape and form
form cell junctions
what is a microtubule?
it is the largest cytoplasmic protein fibers
tubulin is the most common protein
intracellular transport
movement of cilia and flagella
what do microvilli do and what are they supported by?
increase cell surface area
supported by microfilaments
what does the centrosome do?
organizes tubulin into microtubules
it is the dark material close to the nucleus
what do centrioles do?
direct movement of DNA
within the centrosome
what do cilia do?
create current
9 + 2
what do flagella do?
similar to cilia except longer
what are cytoplasmic inclusions?
nutrients floating free in the cytosol
no membrane
what are glycogen granules?
concentrations of animal starch
carbohydrates for future energy
there are many in muscle cells
what are lipid droplets?
concentrations of fat
triglycerides or neutral fats
what is a adipocyte?
one large lipid droplet
what is the responsibility of a ribosome?
protein synthesis
translate mRNA into polypeptide chains
what are the two different types of ribosomes?
fixed
free
what is a fixed ribosome?
it is attached to the ER
produces proteins for export
what is a free ribosome?
free floating in the cytosol
produce protein for intracellular use
polyribosomes
what is a polyribosome?
chain link of 10-20 free floating
what causes a bovine fatty liver?
lipid droplets
treatment: increase carbs
what does the Endoplasmic Reticulum do?
network of interconnected membrane
continuation of nucleus membrane
what are the two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum?
smooth
rough
what does the smooth ER do?
lipid, steroid & glycolysis synthesis
Ca2++ storage in muscles
what does the rough ER do?
ribosomes attach to the surface
-protein synthesis
protein accumulates in RER lumen
what does the golgi apparatus do?
processes secretory proteins from RER
- adds lipid and carbohydrate chains
- packaged in secretory vesicles for exocytosis
- –cisternae
what is cisternae?
hollowed sacs in the golgi apparatus
what do both lysosomes and peroxisomes do?
they are storage vesicles
contain digestive enzymes
what do lysosomes do?
carry enzymes for cell component recycling
-only activated by a very low pH
important for autolysis and opuptosis
what do perioxisomes do?
carry enzymes for lipid catalysis
what is the anatomy of mitochondria?
inner and outer membranes, cristae, matrix
what is the mitochondria responsible for?
ATP production
converts pyruvate to NADH & FADH2 in matrix
what are the two unique aspects of the mitochondria?
DNA
replication
what is the connection between mitochondria and neonatal ruminants?
brown adipose tissue
neonates have a lot
lots of metabolism/energy therefore lots of mitochondria
shortly after birth BAT changes into white adipocytes
less metabolism = less mitochondria
what are the different functions of a membrane?
physical isolation
regulations of exchange with environment
communication between the cell and its environment
structural support
what does physical isolation do?
separates ICF and ECF
what does regulation of exchange with the environment do?
controls entries and exits
selectively permeable
what does communication between the cell and its environment do?
proteins recognize and respond to molecules/changes
what does structural support do?
proteins in membrane hold the cytoskeleton and create junctions
who discovered the fluid mosaic model and what did it allow them to do?
Singer and Nicholson
allowed them to see the 3D arrangement of lipids and proteins
what is the principle of spontaneous phospholipids aggregation?
when placed in an aqueous solution, phospholipids orient themselves so that the fatty acid tails are hidden
what are the three different cell structures of spontaneous phospholipids aggregation?
micelles
liposomes
phospholipid bilayer
what is a membrane structure composed of?
lipids
protein
carbs
what are the three different types of lipids?
phospholipids
sphingolipids
cholesterol
what is a phospholipid?
glycerol
2 fatty acids
phosphate heads
what is a sphingolipid?
head may be a glycolipid
what is cholesterol?
hydrophobic
insert between heads
what are the two categories of proteins in a membrane structure?
integral
peripheral
what is an integral protein?
tightly bound
hard to remove
hydrophobic
what are the two kinds of integral proteins and what do they do?
transmembrane - spans the membrane
lipid-anchored - bound to lipid tails, associated with sphingolipids
what is an peripheral protein?
attached loosely to integral proteins or heads of lipids
what are carbohydrates?
attached to proteins or lipids
what are glycoproteins?
important in immune response
what does and ABO blood group determined by?
sugars attached to sphingolipids
where is the membrane structure found?
external of the cell
form protective layer called the glycocalyx
what kind of energy does simple diffusion?
kinetic energy
how long does simple diffusion last?
until equilibrium is achieved
what type of molecules usually go through simple diffusion?
lipophilic
nonpolar
what is protein mediated transport?
molecules that cannot use simple diffusion use membrane proteins
how do membrane proteins function?
structurally - connect membrane to cytoskeleton, create cell junctions, attach cells to extracellular matrix
enzyme - catalyze chemical reactions on surface (ATPase)
receptors - part of chemical signaling system, ligand binding
transport - move molecules across membrane (channel and carrier proteins
what is a ligand?
molecule binds to a protein (hormones)
what is a channel protein?
water and ions
the flow of molecules are driven by concentration gradient
what are the different types of channel proteins?
open/leak channels
gated channel
what is an open/leak channel?
always open
typically charged inside
molecules of opposite charge can pass through
what are the different types of gated channels?
voltage
ligand
mechanical
what is a voltage gated channel?
open by electrical signal
what is a ligand gated channel?
open when ligand binds
-molecule binds to a protein
what is a mechanical gated channel?
physical change
what does a carrier protein do?
protein binds molecules and carries them across membrane by changing conformation
what is uniport?
move 1 kind of molecule
what is cotransport?
moves 2-3 kinds of molecules
what do symport carriers do?
move molecules same direction
what do antiport carriers do?
move molecules in a different direction
how does procaine and lidocaine work?
they numb local anesthetics -prevent pain no signal sent/received -voltage gated sodium channel is blocked -inhibit conduction of nerve impulses = block pain
what is facilitated diffusion?
uses carrier proteins moves down the concentration gradient no input of energy stops at equilibrium ex: simple sugar, amino acids channel proteins
what is primary active transport?
move molecules against their concentration gradient
must use outside energy
-changes confirmation of carrier proteins (ATPase)
what is Na+/K+ ATPase pump?
most important transport protein in animal cells
3Na+ out
2K+ in
what are the five steps Na+/K+ ATPase?
- 3Na+ bind to high affinity sites
- ATPase is phosphorylated
- 3Na+ released into ECF
- 2K+ bind to high affinity sites
- Pi released and 2K+ released into ICF
what is a secondary active transport?
move molecules against their concentration gradient
must use outside energy
-use kinetic energy of 1 molecule moving down to push other molecules against its gradient
can be either symport or antiport
commonly driven by Na+
how does secondary active transport work?
- Na+ bind to carrier
- Na+ binding creates affinity site for glucose
- Glucose binding changes confirmation
- Na+ released, followed by glucose
what are the three properties of carrier-mediated transport?
specificity - ability of a carrier to carry only 1 molecule/closely related molecules
competition - substrates will compete for binding site
saturation - there is a maximum. all binding sites can be filled
what is a competition inhibitor?
only blocks
not transported into cell
what is vesicle transport?
use for transporting macromolecules
what are the different types of vesicle transports?
exocytosis
phagocytosis
endocytosis
what is exocytosis?
moving out of the cell
export large lipophobic cells
continuous - intestine mucus
intermittent hormone release
what is phagocytosis?
moving into the cell
engulfs particles into vesicles
then fuses with lysosome and particle is destroyed
what is endocytosis?
moving into the cell
surface indents and small vesicles form
receptor - mediated
pinocytosis = cell “drinking”
what is tissue?
a conglomeration of cells of a similar type that carry out a specific set of functions
what is histology?
the study of tissues
what are the four types of tissues?
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
what are the two components of tissue?
cells
extracellular matrix
what are cells?
the ultimate source of tissue function
building blocks of life
how are cells joined together to create tissue?
by junctions
what is extracellular matrix?
synthesized and secreted by cells
provides support for cells
what is the matrix composed of?
insoluble proteins
ex: collagen, fibrinogen, and laminin
what are proteoglycans?
glycoproteins
bound by polysaccharide chains
what are cell junctions?
connect cells via proteins
what are the three types of cell junctions?
gap junction
tight junction
anchor junction
what is a gap junction?
allow direct cell to cell communication - chemical and electrical tubes that connect cytoplasma where: everywhere protein: connexin
what is a tight junction?
occluding - block passage ways
where: GI tract, kidney, blood, brain
protein: claudins and occludins
what is an anchoring junction?
hold cells together
acts like a zipper
where: everywhere
protein: cell adhesion molecule
what do epithelial cells do?
protect internal environment
creates barriers, secretions, and cavity linings
regulates exchange of material
what is basal lamina?
matrix between epithelial and underlying tissue
what is the structures of an epithelial cell?
- simple: one layer of cells
- stratified: 2+ layers of cells
what are different shapes of an epithelial cell?
- cuboidal: cube (glands)
- columnar: tall, cylindrical
- squamous: flat (skin)
what is connective tissue?
extensive matrix that provides structural support and forms a physical barrier
-aka. ground substance
what are the three types of cells for connective tissue?
blast: secreting matrix
cyte: doing nothing in matrix
clast: destroys matrix
what are the different prefixes that determine the type of connective tissue?
fibro: loose & dense CT
chonro: cartilage
adipo: fat
osteo: bone
hemo: blood
