Lab E3 Flashcards
The Urinary System
The urinary system is composed of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra.
The urinary system is constantly working to maintain the purity and health of the body’s fluids by removing unwanted substances and recycling others.
The kidneys contribute to homeostasis by regulating plasma composition through the elimination of metabolic wastes, toxins, excess ions, and water.
Where are the kidneys located? __________retroperitineal __________upper part of abdominal cavity_____________________________
Where are the kidneys located? __________retroperitineal __________upper part of abdominal cavity_____________________________
Where are the kidneys located? __________retroperitineal __________upper part of abdominal cavity_____________________________
Breaking down of amino acids(from protein) makes urea
Uric acid
nucleic acid breakdown leads to uric acid
Breakdown of fatty acids
ketone bodies in blood = acidic
Aquaporins let water in and out
reabsorption of water in nephron
Breaking down of amino acids(from protein) makes urea
Uric acid
nucleic acid breakdown leads to uric acid
Breakdown of fatty acids
ketone bodies in blood = acidic
Aquaporins let water in and out
reabsorption of water in nephron
Functions of the Kidney
Regulation of the volume, composition, and pH of the body fluids
Regulation of acid-base homeostasis (via the production of ammonia)
Regulation of energy metabolism via gluconeogenesis during fasting conditions
Regulation of plasma osmolarity through the control of aquaporin receptors within the collecting duct
Detoxification of metabolic wastes through excretory mechanisms
Conversion of vitamin D3 into its active form
Synthesis and conversion of important hormones such a erythropoietin and renin.
Anatomy of the Kidney
Renal lobe
contains the renal pyramid
Nephron is the functional unit of the kidney
inside the renal pyramid
lots of nephrons inside one pyramid
Each nephron has a blood supply
Blood before nephron
Filtrate in the nephron
Urine after the nephron
Renal cortex
light pink outside pyramids
Medulla
renal pyramids
Minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureters -> bladder -> urethra
urine movement
Cortical nephron
Juxtamedullary nephron
longer loop of henle
the deeper into the pyramid the more ion
more hyperosmotic
water is being pulled into the hyperosmotic area from descending loop of henle so more reabsorption of water out of the tubule
produces more concentrated urine(more of them in desert animals)
Most reabsorption is in the proximal convoluted tubule(PCT)
Sodium, water, and glucose reabsorbed in PCT
Only water reabsorbed in descending loop of henle
Only sodium in ascending loop of henle
Distal convoluted tubule(DCT)
sodium and bicarbonate reabsorption
Collecting duct
water
Renal Blood Flow
Interlobar is between the lobes(between the pyramids)
Interlobular outside the lobes in the cortex
Afferent arterioles feed into the glomerulus
Know
large proteins and red blood cells do not make it out
are not filtered into the filtrate
too big for the pores
no mechanism to reabsorb these substances so bad if leaving
Efferent arteriole
brought back and exiting
Know
large proteins and red blood cells do not make it out
are not filtered into the filtrate
too big for the pores
no mechanism to reabsorb these substances so bad if leaving
Efferent arteriole
brought back and exiting
The Nephron
The main functional unit of the kidney responsible for urine formation
Where is it located? ______cortex and medulla________
Cortical nephrons:
Shorter loops of Henle
About 80-85% of nephrons in humans
Juxtamedullary nephron:
Longer loops of Henle that extend down the renal medulla
Only 15-20% of nephrons in humans
The nephron is composed of: Renal corpuscle = Bowman’s capsule + glomerulus Renal tubule with three distinct parts: -Proximal Convoluted Tubule -Loop of Henle -Distal Convoluted Tubule
Filtration is the process of making filtrate
in the glomerulus and bowmans capsule
Reabsorption
taking back into the blood after being filtrate
filtrate to blood
uses vasa recta and peritubular capillaries
Secretion
put something back in for excretion later on(after filtration)
one of the only mechanism for removing potassium from the body
Excretion
everything that makes it through the entire nephron and let out of the body
Filtration is the process of making filtrate
in the glomerulus and bowmans capsule
Reabsorption
taking back into the blood after being filtrate
filtrate to blood
uses vasa recta and peritubular capillaries
Secretion
put something back in for excretion later on(after filtration)
one of the only mechanism for removing potassium from the body
Excretion
everything that makes it through the entire nephron and let out of the body
Mechanism of Urine Production
The nephron produces urine through three/four main interaction mechanisms:
Filtration – A filtrate of the blood leaves the kidney capillaries and enters the renal tubule
Definition: the movement of water and plasma solutes through the glomerular capillary walls into the urinary space of the Bowman’s capsule.
Reabsorption – Most of the nutrients, water, and essential ions are recovered from the filtrate and returned to the blood
Definition: when a substance is transported from the filtrate, through the tubular cell membrane walls, and eventually into systemic circulation
Secretion – Certain substances are secreted from the blood into the filtrate product to be eliminated
Definition: a substance is transported from peritubular blood vessels into the filtrate product, which will ultimately form urine
Excretion – Process of eliminating or expelling waste matter through the final excretory product, urine
Glomerular Filtration
Initial stage for urine formation
The endothelium of these capillaries are very porous.
They allow fluid, waste products, ions, glucose, and amino acids to pass from the blood into the capsule.
It blocks out bigger molecules like blood cells and proteins so they stay in the blood and exit through the vasa recta.
All the “stuff” that get squeezed out of the blood into the capsule is called filtrate which is then sent along the renal tubule.
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) - volume of filtrate produced by both kidneys per minute
Physiological indicator of renal function
Glomerular filtration is determined by Starling’s pressures
Capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure, capillary blood oncotic pressure, interstitial fluid oncotic pressure
GFR = Kf [ (PGC – PBS) - PGC ]
Glomerular filtration
The only step where blood is actually involved
Review Starling’s pressures bullet point
don’t need to know formula but concept
The only step where blood is actually involved
Review Starling’s pressures bullet point
don’t need to know formula but concept
Vast majority of reabsorption in proximal convoluted tubule(PCT)
If there is any glucose in urine its pathological
possibly diabetes
200mg/dL is the threshold for glucose
A diabetic will reach the 400 threshold quicker and has no buffer to absorb up to 200 like normal individuals
Vast majority of reabsorption in proximal convoluted tubule(PCT)
If there is any glucose in urine its pathological
possibly diabetes
200mg/dL is the threshold for glucose
A diabetic will reach the 400 threshold quicker and has no buffer to absorb up to 200 like normal individuals
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Cell walls are made up of cuboidal epithelial cells containing mitochondria to power pumps that pull sodium ions from the filtrate using active transport
Microvilli to increase surface area to help reabsorb as much of the “good stuff” as possible
The vast majority of renal reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule.
- Approximately 67% of sodium and 67% of water reabsorption
- The coupled sodium and water reabsorption is proportional to each other (isosmotic). This mechanism is essential for the maintenance of the chemical integrity of the extracellular fluid composition and general homeostasis.
In a healthy individual there will be ~100% reabsorption of glucose
When plasma glucose is below 200 mg/dL most if not all filtered glucose is reabsorbed
Renal threshold for glucose = 200 mg/dL
If the blood glucose concentration is higher than 200 mg/dL but lower than 350 mg/dL, what can be said regarding reabsorption and excretion? _____________reabsorbtion down and excretion of glucose starts______________________
If the blood glucose concentration is higher than 400 mg/dL what can be said regarding reabsorption and excretion? __reabsorption limit is reached and all additional glucose is excreted_________________
In a healthy individual there will be ~100% reabsorption of glucose
When plasma glucose is below 200 mg/dL most if not all filtered glucose is reabsorbed
Renal threshold for glucose = 200 mg/dL
If the blood glucose concentration is higher than 200 mg/dL but lower than 350 mg/dL, what can be said regarding reabsorption and excretion? _____________reabsorbtion down and excretion of glucose starts______________________
If the blood glucose concentration is higher than 400 mg/dL what can be said regarding reabsorption and excretion? __reabsorption limit is reached and all additional glucose is excreted_________________
Loop of Henle
Starts in the cortex, dips down in the medulla, comes back into the cortex
- Thin descending
- Thin ascending
- Thick ascending
Drives the reabsorb of water by creating a salt concentration gradient in the tissue of the medulla
The ascending portion actively pumps out salt and is impermeable to water
The high concentration of salt in the interstitial fluid of the medulla causes water to passively flow in the descending portion via osmosis
-Thus, the interstitial fluid is __hypertonic__ to the filtrate.
Loop of Henle
Thin descending
water passively flows out
interstitial fluid is hypertonic to the tubule
more solute outside the tubule
Thin ascending
nothing exits
Thick ascending
NaCl exits
Thin descending
water passively flows out
interstitial fluid is hypertonic to the tubule
more solute outside the tubule
Thin ascending
nothing exits
Thick ascending
NaCl exits
Distal Convoluted Tubule
Responsible for the reabsorption of sodium, bicarbonate, and the secretion of ammonium
PTH acts on the DCT to stimulate calcium reabsorption
Impermeable to water
Empties into the collecting duct
Collecting Duct
Contains aquaporins which aid in the reabsorption of water into the blood
Involved in sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion
Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
MJST have the angiotensin converting enzyme(ACE)
ADH or vasopressin can be interchanged
Aldosterone
retains water and sodium
ADH
retains only water
Without ADH the aquaporins will not work
no water reabsorption in collecting duct
Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
MJST have the angiotensin converting enzyme(ACE)
ADH or vasopressin can be interchanged
Aldosterone
retains water and sodium
ADH
retains only water
Without ADH the aquaporins will not work
no water reabsorption in collecting duct
Important Hormones
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
Low blood volume activates the juxtaglomerular apparatus in a variety of ways to make it secrete renin.
Renin > angiotensin I > angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) > angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II has a variety of effects but it also causes the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
Important Hormones
Aldosterone
Promotes sodium reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct
Promotes the retention of water and sodium
Stimulates thirst
Increase blood volume and thus increase in blood pressure
Important Hormones
ADH or vasopressin
In the presence of high ADH the renal mechanisms produce hyperosmotic (concentrated) urine.
In the absence of ADH the renal excretion mechanisms produce hyposmotic (diluted) urine.
ADH increases the permeability of water of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, which are normally impermeable to water. This effect causes increased water reabsorption and retention and decreases the volume of urine produced.
Urinary Bladder
Micturition – medical term for urination
There are two sphincters, or muscular valves, that separate the bladder from the urethra.
- The sphincters must open before the urine can flow into the urethra.
- The internal sphincter is under involuntary control and the external sphincter is under voluntary control.
Volume of Urine
- Bladder typically “feels full” around 150 - 200 mL
- Perceiving a sense of urgency around 300 – 400 mL
- > 600 mL – involuntary urination
External sphincter is voluntary
Internal sphincter in involuntary
Detrusor muscle
Know the volume numbers
Micturate 1.5 -2 liters per day
External sphincter is voluntary
Internal sphincter in involuntary
Detrusor muscle
Know the volume numbers
Micturate 1.5 -2 liters per day
Clinical Applications
Urinary Tract Infection
Most often occurs in sexually active women. Intercourse drives bacteria from the vagina and the anus through the nearby opening of the short urethra.
-The use of spermicides (found on condoms) magnifies the problem because they also kill the natural, “healthy” bacteria and allow pathogenic bacteria to colonize.
Symptoms include a burning sensation during micturition, increased urgency and frequency of micturition, fever, and sometimes cloudy or blood-tinged urine.
The elderly are also susceptible to UTIs due to weakness of the bladder, incontinence, poor bladder emptying, and retention of urine. Symptoms of a UTI in the elderly include mental changes and confusion.
Clinical Applications
Renal Calculi – “Kidney Stones”
4 different types – Calcium oxalate is the most common
Patients experience severe pain
Risk factors – family history, chronic dehydration, obesity, certain diets (such as those with high in protein and/or salt)
Stones less than 5mm in diameter will likely pass without intervention
- Stones >5 mm may become lodged in the ureter blocking the flow of urine and increasing intrarenal pressure
- Lithotripsy – uses shock waves to break up stones
***Calcium oxalate is only kidney stone to know
Basic Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Pulmonary respiration vs. cellular respiration
Upper respiratory tract vs. lower respiratory tract
URT: Structures from nose to larynx
LRT: Structures from larynx and below
Bronchial tree
1° bronchi, 2° (lobar) bronchi, 3° segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs
Conducting zone
Respiratory components that carry air to sites of gas exchange
Filter, humidify, and warm the incoming air
Respiratory zone
Actual site of gas exchange
Composed of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Blood Air Barrier
Pneumocytes
Type I
40% of alveolar cells
Constitutes majority of alveolar surface
Type II
60% of alveolar cells, but only 3-5% of alveolar surface
House surfactant (DPPC)
Reduces surface tension of alveoli to prevent collapse
Macrophages
Dust cells that remove pollutants
The Mechanism of Ventilation
Breathing or pulmonary ventilation has two phases:
Inspiration or inhalation
Active Process
Inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) contract to increase the volume of the thorax
Intrathoracic pressure decreases
Diaphragm innervated by phrenic nerve
Expiration or exhalation
Passive process
Inspiratory muscles relax, so the diaphragm moves superiorly, and the rib cage/sternum drops
During a forced expiration: external/internal obliques and transversus abdominis contract
-This decreases the intra-abdominal volume, causing an increase in pressure, which forces the diaphragm superiorly and depresses the rib cage/sternum
Inspiration or inhalation
Active Process
Inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) contract to increase the volume of the thorax
Intrathoracic pressure decreases
Diaphragm innervated by phrenic nerve
Inspiration or inhalation
Active Process
Inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) contract to increase the volume of the thorax
Intrathoracic pressure decreases
Diaphragm innervated by phrenic nerve
Expiration or exhalation
Passive process
Inspiratory muscles relax, so the diaphragm moves superiorly, and the rib cage/sternum drops
During a forced expiration: external/internal obliques and transversus abdominis contract
-This decreases the intra-abdominal volume, causing an increase in pressure, which forces the diaphragm superiorly and depresses the rib cage/sternum
Expiration or exhalation
Passive process
Inspiratory muscles relax, so the diaphragm moves superiorly, and the rib cage/sternum drops
During a forced expiration: external/internal obliques and transversus abdominis contract
-This decreases the intra-abdominal volume, causing an increase in pressure, which forces the diaphragm superiorly and depresses the rib cage/sternum
Essential Concepts of Respiration & Nomenclature
Anatomical dead space
Inspired air that never makes it to sites for gas exchange
In a healthy young adult, estimated to be equal to 1 ml per pound of ideal body weight
Essential Concepts of Respiration & Nomenclature
Respiratory Volumes
Tidal volume
Inspiratory reserve volume
Expiratory reserve volume
Residual volume
Essential Concepts of Respiration & Nomenclature
Respiratory Capacities
Inspiratory capacity
Functional residual capacity
Vital capacity
Total lung capacity
Basic Aspects of Gas Transport and Respiration Control
Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Relationship between PO2 and oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin
Under normal resting conditions (PO2 = 100mmHg), arterial blood hemoglobin is 98% saturated
Effected by temperature, blood pH, PCO2
Bohr Shift
Bohr Shift
Exercise
Temperature increases
Partial pressure of CO2 increases
pH of blood decreases
Blood pH Regulation
Carbon dioxide is carried in three main ways in the blood
- Carbaminohemoglobin
- Dissolved CO2
- Bicarbonate
- —Majority in this form
What enzyme catalyzes the reaction between dissolved CO2 and water to form carbonic acid?
enzyme carbonic anhydrase
Why is Cl- transported into the cell while HCO3- is transported out?
Bicarbonate in the red blood cell (RBC) exchanging with chloride from plasma in the lungs. … Continuous process of carbonic acid dissociation and outflow of bicarbonate ions would eventually lead to a change of intracellular electric potential because of lasting H+ ions(carbonic acid formed).
Effects of Exercise on Respiration
Respiratory adjustments during exercise depend on both intensity and duration of the exercise. An increase in ventilation in response to metabolic needs is called hyperpnea.
How does hyperpnea differ from hyperventilation?
- The respiratory changes in hypernea do not alter blood O2 and CO2 significantly. Hyperventilation is characterized by low PCO2 and alkalosis.
- Hyperpnea causes abrupt ventilation increase as exercise begins, followed by gradual increase, then steady state. When exercise stops, there is a small, abrupt decline in ventilation, followed by gradual decrease to resting state.
Physiologically, the respiratory system is relatively unaffected by exercise training.
- Musculoskeletal system and cardiovascular system undergo adaptive changes in response to regular exercise training.
- The lungs in physically trained individuals are not significantly different from the lungs in a sedentary individual. Endurance exercise training has no measurable effect on lung structure and resting pulmonary function.
How does hyperpnea differ from hyperventilation?
The respiratory changes in hypernea do not alter blood O2 and CO2 significantly. Hyperventilation is characterized by low PCO2 and alkalosis.
Hyperpnea causes abrupt ventilation increase as exercise begins, followed by gradual increase, then steady state. When exercise stops, there is a small, abrupt decline in ventilation, followed by gradual decrease to resting state.
Physiologically, the respiratory system is relatively unaffected by exercise training.
Musculoskeletal system and cardiovascular system undergo adaptive changes in response to regular exercise training.
The lungs in physically trained individuals are not significantly different from the lungs in a sedentary individual. Endurance exercise training has no measurable effect on lung structure and resting pulmonary function.
Clinical Applications
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Category of disorders in which the flow of air into and out of the lungs is difficult or obstructed
Chronic bronchitis or emphysema
- More than 80% of patients have a history of smoking
- Categorized dyspnea – labored or difficult breathing
- An irreversible decrease in the ability to force air out of the lungs
Clinically present two very different patterns:
- Pink puffers – Increased effort to maintain oxygenation, so patients appear flushed with labored breathing
- Blue bloaters – Impaired flow of air leads to cyanosis and fluid retention in patients
Clinical Applications
Asthma
The cause of asthma has been hard to pin down
- Initially viewed as consequence of bronchospasms triggered by various factors
- Researchers have found that, in allergic asthma, active inflammation of the airways comes first
- —Inflammation persists even during symptom-free periods, which makes the airways hypersensitive
Better treatment options are now available
-Bronchodilators merely treat the symptoms whereas, corticosteroids treat the underlying cause of inflammation
Clinical Applications
Smoking
Leading cause of preventable disease and death in the United States
-Accounts for more than 480,000 deaths every year (1 out of every 5 deaths is attributable to smoking).
Can cause disease in URT and LRT
- Irritation of trachea and larynx
- Loss of cilia and decrease in flexibility of alveoli
- Cancer of oral cavity, throat, larynx, lungs, etc.
The endocrine system refers to the communicative structures that release hormones to manipulate various processes.
The endocrine system refers to the communicative structures that release hormones to manipulate various processes.
Endocrine system includes all primary and secondary organs that produce and secrete hormones.
Primary endocrine organs produce and secrete hormones as their primary physiological role.
Secondary endocrine organs and tissues produce and secrete hormones in addition to their main function.
Hormones
The endocrine system influences metabolic activity by means of hormones, chemical messengers secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids.
These messengers travel through the blood and regulate the metabolic function of other cells. Binding of a hormone to cellular receptors initiates responses that typically occurs after a lag period of seconds to even days.
The chemical structure determines a critical property of a hormone: its solubility in water.
-Water solubility affects how it is transported in the blood, how long it lasts before it is degraded, and what receptors it can act upon.
Hormones
Amino acid based
Derived from amino acids this includes amines (such as epinephrine and thyroxine) and peptides (such as growth hormone and vasopressin)
Usually water soluble and cannot cross the plasma membrane
Hormones
Steroids
Synthesized from cholesterol
Only gonadal and adrenocortical hormones are steroids
Lipid soluble and can cross the plasma membrane
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
The hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the pituitary gland in two different ways.
Anterior pituitary
Hypothalamic hormones released into special blood vessels (the hypophyseal portal system) control the production and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Posterior pituitary
Action potentials travel down the axons of hypothalamic neurons causing hormones to be released from the axon terminals
Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
- Hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones into capillary plexus.
- Hypothalamic hormones travel though hypophyseal portal veins to the anterior pituitary; where they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones made in the anterior pituitary.
- Anterior pituitary hormones are secreted into the secondary capillaries and in turn empties into the general circulation.
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
Hypothalamic neurons synthesize oxytocin and ADH.
These hormones are then transported down the axons of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary where they are stored in axon terminals
When associated hypothalamic neurons fire, action potentials arriving at the axon terminals cause the hormones to be released into the blood
Pineal Gland (Epiphysis)
Regulates the circadian rhythm through the production and secretion of melatonin.
Melatonin production and release can be stimulated by darkness or inhibited by light impulses.
Important precursors: tryptophan and serotonin
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) affect virtually every cell in the body.
Thyroid hormones enters the target cell, bind to receptors within the cell’s nucleus, and initiate transcription of mRNA for protein synthesis.
Thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rate and body heat production, and also regulate tissue growth and development.
Thyroid Gland
Calcitonin
Released from parafollicular cells (C-cells) of the thyroid gland in response to a rise in blood calcium levels
Inhibits osteoclast activity, inhibiting bone resorption and the release of calcium from the bony matrix
Counteracts the regulatory effects of the parathyroid glands by promoting osteoblast activity.
Parathyroid
Produce and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Plays a critical role in controlling calcium concentrations in the blood
Low levels of calcium trigger the release of PTH
Parathyroid
PTH increases calcium levels in the blood by stimulating three target organs:
Skeleton – stimulates osteoclasts to digest some of the calcium rich bony matrix and release the calcium and phosphates into the blood
Kidneys – enhances the reabsorption of calcium
Intestine – promotes activation of vitamin D thereby increasing absorption of calcium by intestinal mucosal cell
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex
Release hormones called corticosteroids
Zona glomerulosa – secretes mineralcorticoids such as aldosterone to regulate sodium and potassium balance
Zona fasciculata – secretes glucocorticoids such as cortisol which stimulates glucose formation and inhibits utilization of glucose
Zona reticularis – secrete sex steroids
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal medulla
Regulated by neural innervation
Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Fight or flight response
Pancreas
The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine organ
Endocrine cells are located in islets of Langerhans.
Αlpha cells
- Secrete glucagon
- Hypoglycemia is the main activator of release
βeta cells
- Secrete insulin
- Hyperglycemia is the main activator of release
Pancreas
Αlpha cells
- Secrete glucagon
- Hypoglycemia is the main activator of release
Pancreas
βeta cells
- Secrete insulin
- Hyperglycemia is the main activator of release
Clinical Applications
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Characterized by persistent hyperglycemia
Correlated with a variety of negative health implications such as development of Alzheimer’s disease, nerve degeneration, cognitive dysfunction, etc.
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Type I DM
Insulin dependent
“adolescent-onset diabetes”
Autoimmune disorder caused by destruction of the beta cells
Lack of insulin secretion leads to hyperglycemia and increased lipolysis activity
Little correlation with body weight
Smaller % of diabetic population
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Type II DM
Non insulin-dependent
“maturity-onset diabetes”
Caused by insulin resistance where the target cells no longer respond normally to insulin
Normal or elevated insulin initially; relative insulin deficiency
Strong correlation with body weight; majority of patients are overweight or obese
Larger % of diabetic population
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
Kidneys
Stimulate kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water; inhibition of diuresis
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
Oxytocin
Uterine smooth muscle and mammary glands
Stimulate contractions during labor; initiates labor
Initiates milk ejection while breastfeeding
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Secretion of ACTH
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Secretion of FSH, LH
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Inhibition of prolactin secretion
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Somatostatin (SOM)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Inhibition of GH secretion
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Secretion of TSH
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Interaction
Hypothalamic Hormone
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Ant. Pituitary Effect
Secretion of GH
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Adrenal glands, specifically the adrenal cortex
Secretion of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyroid
Secretion of thyroxine (T4) & triiodothyronine (T3)
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Ovaries and testes
In females, triggers ovulation.
In males, promotes testosterone production.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Ovaries and testes
In females, stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and production of estrogens.
In males, stimulates sperm production
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Growth hormone (GH)
Liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, & other tissues
Regulates metabolism and body growth
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Prolactin (PRL)
Mammary glands
Promotes lactation
