Exam 1 Flashcards
Cell
*Cells are the basic structural
and functional units of life.
All living organisms are cellular
in nature,
e.g.: amoebas with only one cell
or human, animals and big plants
with many cells (multicellular).
*There are 50 to 100 trillion cells
in the human body.
Cells have 3 main regions
1- Plasma membrane
2- Cytoplasm
3- Nucleus
Plasma membrane (plasmalemma)
Is the outer thin and flexible membrane of the cell which separates
the intracellular from extracellular compartment (fluid).
Cell membrane protects the cell from trauma
Contains proteins
Structure of the plasma membrane
Membrane is made of a double layer of lipids such as phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids, within which proteins are embedded.
Contains integral proteins
used for endocrine hormones
(clinical point) any change or mutation to receptor structure then receptor may so resistance to endocrine hormone and hormone receptor can not bind to receptor
leads to different issues such as type 2 diabetes because the insulin receptor can not accept the insulin hormone which leads to hyperglycemia
Periphreal proteins from inside cell membrane to outside function is to separate the cell membrane from cytoplasm
Phospholipids
Are the most abundant lipids in the
plasma membrane.
The heads are hydrophilic (attached to
water, the main constituent of intra- and
extracellular fluids) and lie along the
inner and outer face of the membrane.
The tails are hydrophobic (avoid water
and line up in the center of the membrane).
Heads are hydrophilic
Tail is hydrophobic(or lipophilic)
Membrane proteins:
1- Integral proteins
2- peripheral proteins
1- Integral proteins
2- peripheral proteins
Membrane proteins:
1- Integral proteins
Are the most abundant proteins in the membrane, most extend entirely through the membrane (transmembrane) but some protrude from one side of the membrane. Could act as receptors.
Membrane proteins:
2- peripheral proteins
are mainly on
the cytoplasmic side.
They support the cytoplasmic side of
the membrane by a network of filaments
Membrane proteins:
Glycocalyx(sugar covering or cell coat):
is a short chain of carbohydrate (sugars)
projected out from the external surface
of glycoproteins or glycolipids.
This functions in cell-to-cell binding and
recognition.
Functions of the plasma membrane
1- Serves as an external cell barrier against substances
and forces outside the cell.
2- Externally facing proteins act as receptors (for hormones,
neurotransmitters etc.) and in cell to cell recognition.
3- Acts in transport of substances into or out of the cell.
The membrane is a selective permeable barrier, allowing
some substances to pass between intra- and extracellular
fluids while preventing others.
Movements of the substances across
the plasma membrane:
- Passive Transport
- Active Transport
- Vesicular or bulk transport
(clinical point) – any modification to active transport(or ion pump) can impact the cellular activity
can impact the action potential
Movements of the substances across
the plasma membrane:
- Passive Transport
1- Passive process: substances can pass freely through the lipid bilayer
down their concentration gradient i.e.: from more concentrated region
to the less concentrated region. No energy (ATP) is needed.
Diffusion: movement of small, uncharged molecules like oxygen, Co2
and fat soluble molecules across the membrane.
Movements of the substances across
the plasma membrane:
- Active Transport
2- Active process: substances move against a concentration gradient from
a lower to a higher concentration, ATP is needed.
Active transport: most larger water-soluble or charged
molecules, such as glucose, amino acids and ions are transported
by a pump or carrier and involve the integral proteins.
Movements of the substances across
the plasma membrane:
- Passive Transport
- Active Transport
- Vesicular or bulk transport
3- Vesicular or bulk transport: Large particles and macromolecules pass
through the membrane by this mechanism. There are generally two types
of bulk transport: exocytosis and endocytosis.
Exocytosis:
Membrane-lined cytoplasmic vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents to the outside of the cell. e.g.: mucus and protein secretions from the glands in the body.
Proteins extending from the vesicle membrane vSNAREs, bind with plasma membrane proteins, the tSNAREs (t for target), this causes the lipid layers of the vesicle and cell membrane to join together.
Some cells produce things like hormones
Vesicles cover the hormones(orange circles)
The vesicle fuses to cell membrane then releases the package(hormone) into the blood stream
Endocytosis:
Brings large molecules into the cell, through an initial infolding part of the
plasma membrane that encloses them to form cytoplasmic vesicles.
Clathrin protein, found on the cytoplasmic side of the infolding is
responsible for deforming the membrane.
There are 3 types of endocytosis:
phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Endocytosis:
phagocytosis(cell eating):
Here, parts of plasma membrane form pseudopodes and flow around large
molecules such as bacteria or cellular debris and engulf it.
By this way, a membranous vesicle, called a phagosome is formed.
Phagosomes mostly fuse to the lysosomes for enzymatic break down of
phagosomal contents.
White blood cells have such phagocytic activity.
Endocytosis:
pinocytosis(cell drinking):
Is fluid phase endocytosis.
In pinocytosis, a small infolding of the plasma membrane surrounds
a small quantity of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules.
This is the main function of cells lining the small intestine, absorption
of the nutrients.
Absorption of fluid
Small intestine
90% of absorption and digestion of fluids, nutrients occur here
Endocytosis:
receptor-mediated endocytosis
It is a selective mechanism. Specific molecules such as insulin and other hormones, enzymes and low density lipoproteins (LDL, molecules that carry cholesterol in the blood to the body’s cells) are brought into the cells by first attaching to a receptor on the membrane before being taken into the cells in a protein coated vesicle.
Contents of the vesicles are released by binding to lysosomes and the
receptors are recycled back to plasma membrane.
Viruses and some toxins use the same mechanism to enter the cells.
Endocytosis:
receptor-mediated endocytosis
LDL and Cholesterol
Receptor(first molecule) grabs the second molecule
LDL uptakes the cholesterol from blood stream then it binds two cholesterol then carries it to the target cell
LDL needs to bind to LDL receptor on cell membrane then it is able to release cholesterol into cell
Cholesterol is the precursor of sex hormones
(clinical point) if there is any modification to LDL receptor then LDL can not bind to LDL receptor(rejected by LDL receptor) and it can not release cholesterol into target cell
testicle with no cholesterol will not be able to produce testosterone
leads to sex hormone disorders
Vitamin D precursor is cholesterol as well
Deficiency in vitamin D leads to osteroperosis
Familial hypercholesterolemia
Is an inherited disease in which the cells lack the receptors that bind to
cholesterol binding LDLs.
As a result, cholesterol cannot enter the cells and builds up in the blood,
causing hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis which lead to stroke or
myocardial infarction.
Cholesterol is not able to enter cells which allows cholesterol to build up in blood stream
leads to formation of blood clots -> closure of vessel -> strokes, heart attacks etc
The Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the cellular region between the nucleus and plasma membrane.
It consists of:
cytosol, or cytoplasmic matrix which is a viscous fluid containing water,
ions and enzymes, inclusions containing stored nutrients and pigments and organelles.
Ribosomes
- Are dark staining granules with no membrane.
- Ribosomes are site of protein production.
They consist of two subunits:
protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA, ribonucleic acid).
Free ribosomes make the protein used in the cytosol.
Ribosomes attached on the surface of rER make the proteins used for cell membrane
or exported out of the cell.
Amino acids on the ribosomes are linked together to form protein. This process is
called Translation and is dictated by DNA of the nucleus. Such instructions are
carried to the ribosomes by messengers called messenger RNA (mRNA).
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER):
1
Is a ribosome-studded system of membrane-walled envelopes in cytosol, called cisternae.