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Phisio > Lab E1 > Flashcards

Lab E1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

is the study of the structure and description of the human body.

Micro-anatomy vs. macro-anatomy

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2
Q

Physiology

A

is the study of biological functions and processes of the human body under basal (normal) conditions.

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3
Q

homeostasis

A

the dynamic constancy of the internal physiological environment while buffering the challenges of the external environment.

-It reflects the ability of the human body to maintain relatively constant (internally), despite the changes in our surrounding environment.

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4
Q

Feedback Control Mechanism

A
  1. Stimulus
  2. change detected by receptor
  3. input: information afferently sent to control center
  4. output: information sent efferently to effector
  5. response of effector leads to influence of magnitude of stimulus and returns to variable homeostasis
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5
Q

Negative Feedback System

A

The response of the control system is negative or opposing to the stimulus.

Examples:
Regulation of blood pressure

Decrease in blood volume ->decrease in blood pressure ->detected by baroreceptors in carotid arteries ->sent to the brain ->vessels constrict, heart rate increases, etc.

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6
Q

Positive Feedback System

A

The response of the control system is positive or promoting the stimulus.

Positive feedback systems act to amplify the initial response to the stimulus.

Only 2

Child birth
Blood coagulation

When the head of a fetus is positioned appropriately, the increased pressure on the cervix stimulates sensory receptors. The excited sensory receptors then send a neural message to the brain. The brain responds by triggering the release of the hormone oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin travels through the blood stream to the uterus and promotes increase in contractions. This process will continue and the cervix becomes further stimulated and the uterine contractions become stronger until birth occurs.

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7
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Serves as an external cell barrier

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.

The phospholipid bilayer marks the boundaries of the cell and is amphipathic in nature.

Each lipid molecule contains a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.

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8
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Passive – Simple

Simple Diffusion

A

Natural movement from high to low concentrations

Unassisted transport (does not use an integral protein)

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9
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Passive – Facilitated

Channel mediated

A

Special transport proteins create hydrophilic tunnels in the lipid bilayer

Facilitated the transport of small, polar molecules and ions

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10
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Passive – Facilitated

Carrier mediated

A

Special transport proteins “carry” the substance across

Facilitates the transport of large, polar molecules

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11
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Osmosis

A

Water moves to side with higher solute concentration

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12
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Active Transport

Primary Active Transport

A

Carrier proteins “pump” the molecules against the concentration gradient

Direct use of cellular energy

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13
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Active Transport

Secondary Active Transport

A

Downhill movement of one molecule drives the uphill movement of another molecule

Indirect use of energy

Utilizes the established concentration gradient of molecule A to power the transport of molecule B

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14
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Vesicular Transport

Endocytosis

A

Vesicular transport is the bulk transport of substances into or out of the cell.

Substances are taken into the cell by modifying the plasma membrane structure

Phagocytosis

  • “Cell eating”
  • The cell engulfs a large particle by forming projecting pseudopods (“false feet”) around it and enclosing it within a membrane sac called a phagosome.

Pinocytosis

  • “Cell drinking”
  • Infolding of the plasma membrane carries a drop of the extracellular fluid containing solutes into the cell in a tiny membrane-bound vesicle
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15
Q

Transport Mechanisms:Vesicular Transport

Exocytosis

A

Vesicular transport is the bulk transport of substances into or out of the cell.

Substances are released from the cell into the extracellular environment

Account for most secretion processes

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16
Q

Tonicity of Solutions

A

Tonicity is a measure of the potential difference in osmotic pressure gradient of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane.

It is only influenced by non-penetrating solutes (i.e. solutes that cannot cross the membrane and exert an osmotic pressure).

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17
Q

Isotonic Solution

A

Both solutions have the same concentration of solutes.

No net movement of water

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18
Q

Hypertonic Solution

A

A solution in which the concentration of solute is higher than the solution it is being compared to.

water moves to high solute concentration to dilute.

Cell with crenate(water leaves cell to hypertonic solution)

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19
Q

Hypotonic solution

A

A solution in which the concentration of solute is lower than the solution it is being compared to.

water moves into cell. Cell will lyse.

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20
Q

The skin performs a variety of functions:

A

Protection

Body temperature regulation

Excretion

Production of vitamin D

Sensory reception

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21
Q

Skin has 2 distinct regions:

A

Epidermis

Dermis
-Hypodermis

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22
Q

Skin is the largest of all organs, accounting for about 7-15% of total body weight.

A

Skin varies in thickness from 1.5 to 4 mm or more in different regions of the body.

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23
Q

skin is largest organ

A

liver is 2nd largest

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24
Q

Vitamin D

A

calcium and phosphorous reabsorbption

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25
Q

Epidermis

A

Four Distinct Types of Cells

Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Merkel cells (also called tactile epithelial cells)
Langerhans cells (also called dendritic cells)

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26
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

A

“come lets get sun burned”

Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale
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27
Q

Epidermis Cell Types

Keratinocytes

A

most abundant
starts in basal then takes 35-45 days to move up and die off
keratin is a strong protein
helps with the integrity of the skin

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28
Q

Epidermis Cell Types

Melanocytes

A

secretes melanin in space between keratinocytes

protects nucleus from UV rays which damage the DNA

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29
Q

Epidermis Cell Types

Merkel cells (also called tactile epithelial cells)

A

sensory for touching

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30
Q

Epidermis Cell Types

Langerhans cells (also called dendritic cells)

A

phagocytic
help with immune response
receptor mediated endocytosis

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31
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum corneum

A

“come lets get sun burned”

dead cells

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32
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum lucidum

A

“come lets get sun burned”

only on thick skin(palms and heels)
remember this

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33
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum granulosum

A

“come lets get sun burned”

flattened

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34
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum spinosum

A

“come lets get sun burned”

greatest concentration of keratinocytes

35
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum basale

A

“come lets get sun burned”

where formation starts

36
Q

Dermis

A

Papillary
top 20% of dermis(towards epidermis)

Reticular
bottom 80% of layer

37
Q

Dermis

Papillary

A

Adjacent to the stratum basale

Dermal papilla is folded
—reason is to maximize the nutrient exchange between dermis and epidermis
epidermis is not blood supplies = no nutrients which is why the top layers start to die

Dermal papillae

  • Fingerlike projections which attach to the epidermis above
  • Increase the surface area for exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between these layers
  • Form the ridges and whorls of the skin surface in the fingers, palms, toes, and soles
38
Q

Dermis

Reticular

A

Deep region of the dermis

Accounts for about 80% of the total dermal thickness

Dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and blood vessels

39
Q

Dermis

Hypodermis

A

not a layer of skin

Consists of both areolar and adipose connective tissue

Serves as thermal insulation, protective padding, and energy storage

40
Q

Vitamin D function

A

Calcium and phosphorous reabsorption

The major function of vitamin D is to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. It helps the body absorb calcium that is necessary for building and maintaining healthy bones.

41
Q

Vitamin D and UV

A

UV rays stimulate the deep epidermis to produce a vitamin D precursor.

Ends with kidneys(know that)

UV rays stimulate skins -> create precursor to vitamin D - > precursor sent to liver -> precursor sent to kidney where is becomes actual Vitamin D form - > active form of Vitamin D is sent to intestine for absorption of calcium and phosphorous

42
Q

The more melanin in skin means Vitamin D exposure would need to be longer to get stimulation from UV for Vitamin D production

A

darker skin = longer time in sun for same daily dose of vitamin D stimulation
know this for exam “there is no set amount of time”

43
Q

Melanin

A

Produced by melanocytes from an amino acid called tyrosine

Accumulate on the superficial, or “sunny,” side of keratinocytes

Shields the nucleus from ultraviolet radiation

Tyrosine - > tyrosinease forms melanin so if the enzyme is missing then no melanin
this is Albinism

More melanin to protect keratinocytes is why your skin tans
it shows as skin getting darker
know for exam

44
Q

Carotene

A

Yellow-orange pigment that is obtained from vegetable sources

Carrots, keratin, and stratum cornea
this is for Carotene

45
Q

Hemoglobin

A

The pink hue of Caucasian reflects the crimson color of oxygenated hemoglobin in the capillaries of the dermis

Caucasian skin contains little melanin, the epidermis is nearly transparent and allows the color of blood to show through

Note: Black and blue marks represent discolored blood that is visible through the skin. Such bruises reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and clotted below the skin. The clinical term for this is called a hematoma.

4 oxygen for 1 hemoglobin
in red blood cells
makes a red/pink hue
know for exam

46
Q

Sebaceous Glands(oil)

A

oil protects skin

antibacterial

47
Q

Sudoriferous Glands(sweat)

A

Eccrine and Apocrine

48
Q

Sudoriferous Glands(sweat)

Eccrine

A

everywhere

concentrated palms, soles, forehead
secrete straight up into sweat pore

49
Q

Sudoriferous Glands(sweat)

Apocrine

A

axillary and anogenital
secrete into a hair follicle then comes out at hair root
becomes active during puberty and gives body odor

50
Q

Sensory receptors

A

Chemoreceptors
chemical response
taste, smell

Photoreceptors
light
eyes

Thermoreceptors
temperature

Mechanoreceptors
touch

Nociceptors
pain

First 4 go through adaptation
after a while you no longer think about it(temperature becomes fine, touching something a long time becomes dull)
advantageous so the body is not overloaded by stimulus

Nociceptors
pain does not adapt because it is a constant need to know your body is hurting
don’t want to have adaptation to encourage fixing the pain

51
Q

Skin Receptors

Meissner’s corpuscles

A

Light and intermittent

Distributed on various areas of the skin but are concentrated in areas sensitive to light touch, such as fingertips, lips, and nipples

52
Q

Skin Receptors

Pacinian corpuscles

A

deep and intermittent
- shaving

Respond to deep pressure or vibration

53
Q

Skin Receptors

Ruffini’s corpuscles

A

Deep and Sustained
- deep tissue massage

Respond to skin stretching and torque

54
Q

Skin Receptors

Merkel discs

A

Light and Sustained

Provide information about an object’s qualities like edges or its curves

55
Q

Meissners, Pacinian, and Ruffini

encapsulated by a connective tissue

A

Merkel

not encapsulated

56
Q

Skin Cancer types

A

Basal cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma

Melanoma

57
Q

Skin Cancer types

Basal Cell Carcinoma

A

Least malignant and most common of the skin cancers

Over 30% of all Caucasians get it in their lifetime!

Cells of the stratum basale proliferate, invading the dermis and hypodermis, and causing tissue erosions there

Most common lesions of this cancer are dome-shaped, shiny nodules

Grows relatively slowly, metastasis seldom occurs
99% full cure rate

58
Q

Skin Cancer types

Squamous cell carcinoma

A

Arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum

Appears as a scaly, irregular, reddened, round elevation

Grows rapidly and will likely metastasize if not removed

99% full cure rate

59
Q

Skin Cancer types

Melanoma

A

Cancer of the melanocytes

Most dangerous kind of skin cancer

Can originate wherever there is pigment, but it often arises from existing moles

Metastasizes rapidly into surrounding circulatory vessels

Key to survival is early detection; survival rate decline with increasing thickness, degree of involvement of nearby lymph nodes, and extent of metastasis

60
Q

Melanoma detection ABCDE

A

Review the three types

Rules
A – asymmetry(symmetry for regular mole)
B – border – defined rigid border
C – color – normal brownish(blotchy is bad)
D - diameter – normal up to 6mm
E – evolution and elevation
evolution = change over time(if changing then check)
elevation = how far raised above skin – normal is not as high

61
Q

Types of muscle tissue

A

Smooth muscle is unicellular with ONE nucleus

Cardiac muscle
intercalated disk assist in contraction so it contracts in unison

Skeletal muscle peripheral located with multiple nucleie
on periphery to pack the rest of the cell densely with fibers for contractions

Know skeletal muscle for test

62
Q

Organization of Skeletal Muscle

A

Epimysium
Surrounds muscle group

Perimysium
Surrounds fascicle

Endomysium
Surrounds muscle fiber/cell

63
Q

Striations in a longitudinal section of skeletal muscle

Know longitudinal and cross sections of skeletal muscle differentiation
know thick or thin skin slides too

A

Striations in a longitudinal section of skeletal muscle

Know longitudinal and cross sections of skeletal muscle differentiation
know thick or thin skin slides too

64
Q

know underlined and boxed in red for test

H band is ONLY myosin
no actin

A band spans the entire myosin area
myosin AND actin
A for Actin and And

I band is ONLY actin
no myosin

M line is middle of myosin
in middle

Sarcomere is the functional unit of the muscle
smallest unit that can perform a contraction
Z disk to Z disk on myofibril

On contraction(HI disappear but A stays same)
H zone will disappear upon contraction

A zone stays same size

I zone disappears

Protein fibers Actin and Myosin DO NOT change length on contraction but do overlap
the entire Sarcomere does change length on contraction

A

know underlined and boxed in red for test

H band is ONLY myosin
no actin

A band spans the entire myosin area
myosin AND actin
A for Actin and And

I band is ONLY actin
no myosin

M line is middle of myosin
in middle

Sarcomere is the functional unit of the muscle
smallest unit that can perform a contraction
Z disk to Z disk on myofibril

On contraction(HI disappear but A stays same)
H zone will disappear upon contraction

A zone stays same size

I zone disappears

Protein fibers Actin and Myosin DO NOT change length on contraction but do overlap
the entire Sarcomere does change length on contraction

65
Q

Anatomy of Myofibrils

A

A band – dark region of the sarcomere,myosin filaments plus some overlapping actin

I band – light region of the sarcomere, containing only actin filaments

H zone – in the center of the each A bandis a portion of the myosin filament with no overlap of actin

Z line – howsarcomeres are divided from each other, found in the center of each I band

M line – in the center of each A band

66
Q

Anatomy of Myofibrils fiber types

A

Thick = myosin

Thin = actin

Tropomyosin is wrapped around by tropomyosin

Located on the actin molecule itself are two additional proteins, troponin and tropomyosin. These proteins make up only a small portion of the muscle, but they play an important role in the regulation of the contraction process.

67
Q

Sarcolemma

A

Sarcolemma = membrane of the sarcomere

Sarcolemma then endomysium

The T tubules send the signal of action potential to all microfibrils in an area so unified contraction across multiple myofibrils

Sarcoplasmic Renticulum is the internal Ca2= storage

68
Q

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

A

Ach is released at the NMJ and binds to receptor site on the sarcolemma

Action potential in muscle membrane

Depolarization of T tubules causes Ca2+ channels to open

Intracellular concentration of Ca2+ increases

Ca2+ binds to troponin on the thin filaments

Tropomyosin moves to allow the interaction of actin and myosin

Cross-bridge cycling begins and force is generated

Ca2+ reaccumulated by the SR and the muscle relaxes

69
Q

Troponin and Tropomyosin

A

When [Ca2+] is low

  • Tropomyosin blocks the myosin binding site on actin
  • Contraction will not occur
When [Ca2+] is present
-Ca2+ binds troponin complex
-Conformational change of tropomyosin allows myosin to bind to actin
-Contraction can occur
-----
Myosin has a high affinity for actin
	tropomyosin blocks the spots
		if not then muscle contraction all the time
	TnC = binds to calcium
	TnI = binds to actin
	TnT = binds to tropomyosin

Once calcium bind then it causes a conformational change which moves the tropomyosin out of the actins way
Actin and myosin can then bind

70
Q

Sliding Filament Theory

A
  1. Release
  2. Cocked
  3. Cross Bridge
  4. Power stroke
  5. attached
  6. ATP causes the release of myosin binding to actin
  7. ATP is hydrolyzed and gets cocked
  8. ATP binds
  9. ATP – phosphate is released and myosin pulls the actin
  10. ADP is release
71
Q

Motor Unit & Precision of Muscle Movement

A

Motor unit
the motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
only what the axon terminals are touching
pic has 6 fibers but only 4 are touched by axon terminals

Fine motion will have a greater density of motor neurons but each motor neuron will innervate less motor units
small motor units = fine motor activities
large motor units = gross motor activities

72
Q

Skeletal Muscle Actions

A

Isometric
length stays the same
holding a tray with or without glasses = same muscle length
the tone changes because of weight but not muscle length

Isotonic
concentric = bicep curl
eccentric = contract but lengthen(trying to lift something but it doesn’t move)

73
Q

Skeletal Muscle Actions parts

A

Agonist – the primary mover

Synergistic – muscles that assist the agonist group

Antagonistic- muscles that oppose the agonist

74
Q

Classification of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

A

Structural and histological features determine the type of fibers based on size, diameter, and myoglobin. (Myoglobin is the oxygen binding molecule that facilitates oxygen transport into myocytes.)

Type 1 = slow twitch

Type 2 = fast twitch

Slow twitch
	endurance activities(long run)
	myoglobin
		binds to oxygen and doesn’t let it go
		keeps oxygen in muscles(oxygen storage)
	high mitochondria = energy production
		need ATP to release the muscle contraction
	fatigue resistance so you can go longer

Fast twitch
power lifter
exert a lot of energy at one time then done

75
Q

Classification of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Slow twitch – Type I

A

Myoglobin rich

Contain large numbers of oxidative enzymes

High mitochondrial volume

Surrounded by more dense capillary networks

Fatigue resistant

Slower maximal shortening velocity

Highly efficient

76
Q

Classification of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Fast twitch - Type IIX and Type IIA

A 
Type IIX
-Small number of mitochondria
-Less resistant to fatigue
-Rich in glycolytic enzymes 
Generate the highest power output

Type IIA

  • Intermediate fibers
  • Mixture of Type I and Type IIX
77
Q

Exercise Physiology

A

Hypertrophy
increasing muscle size but not the number of muscle number

Gender difference
if a male and female muscle fiber is exactly the same diameter then they will be exactly as strong
can do the same work
on average male has a bigger diameter and therefore would be stronger because the fiber size

78
Q

Exercise Physiology

Hypertrophy

A

An increase in muscle fiber diameter due to an increase in myofibril size

The amount of force that can be generated by a muscle group is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the muscle.

Thus, physiological adaptations as a result of strength training are a result an increase in muscle size, not muscle number (i.e. hyperplasia).

79
Q

Exercise Physiology

Muscle soreness

A

Result from microscopic injury to the muscle fibers

Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) appears 24-48 hours post microscopic injury

NOT a result of lactic acid accumulation

80
Q

Exercise Physiology

Gender Differences

A

When absolute strength (the total amount of force applied) is compared in untrained men and women, men are typically stronger.

This apparent sex difference in strength is often obsolete when force production in men and women is compared on the basis of the cross-sectional area of the muscle.

81
Q

Sarcopenia

Aging

A

aging losing muscle mass
know the numbers for slow and rapid phase for muscle decline

generally see a shift from Type 2 to Type 1 muscle fibers
	go from fast twitch to slow twitch

Sarcopenia

Age related decline in muscle mass begins around age 25 and occurs across the lifetime.

The rate of age related muscle loss occurs in two distinct phases

  • Slow phase – 10% of muscle mass is lost from 25 to 50 years
  • Rapid phase – An additional 40% of muscle mass is lost from 50 to 80 years
  • Generally see in a shift in fiber type (heavy loss of fast twitch, increase of slow twitch).
82
Q

Rigor Mortis

A

Postmortem muscle stiffness resulting from rigor crossbridges in the absence of adenosine triphosphate

83
Q

Muscular Dystrophy

A

A group of hereditary muscle diseases that weaken skeletal muscle

Characterized by defects in muscle proteins or lack of a protein called dystrophin that results in a progressive muscle weakness and a loss of muscle fibers

Dystrophin holds the cell membrane up
in muscular dystrophy the dystrophin is missing then the cells start to collapse
impacts males more because on X chromosome
males have only one X so if impacted they are impacted

Phisio (9 decks)

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