L8 - Metacognition 2 Flashcards
What is memory for?
Memory is for doing (action). It is a pragmatic tool.
Traditional approaches to memory tend to take into account of 1)______ of _____ but fail to look at 2)_______ with ______
1) Quantity of Recall
2) correspondence with reality
What is correspondence in regards to memory?
How well does what we say is in our memory fit with what we originally observed
What is the typical laboratory paradigm appraoch to memory?
List-learning experiments
Memory performance measured by % of items recalled/recognised
What is recognition?
Where you are shown a group of items and then asked whether you recognise the items when shown again.
What is recall?
When you are given a list of items and then asked to try and remember those items.
The traditional approach to memory involves the storehouse metaphor, what does this mean?
Memory is quantity-oriented
- Memory is a storage place*
- Contents as discrete elements*
- Memory assessed in input-bound manner (how much of the input is recovered in the output)*
- Forgetting as a loss of elements or items in memory*
What is the correspondence approach to memory?
Everyday memory research
Memory is focused on an output bound manner
- We are interested in what comes out of memory, not so much what went in*
- e.g. eyewitness report of crime - memory performance measured by faithfulness to past events*
What is the correspondence metaphor in the correspondence approach to memory?
Memory is accuracy-oriented
- It is about past events
- The focus is on accuracy of reports compared to the original event
- Memory assessed in an output-bound manner (interested in outcomes, not input)
- Forgetting is a loss of correspondence (not only can you lose memory but your memory can change)
Say you have asked subjects to study a list of 12 words.
Their performance is that they got 8 words correct, 2 words incorrect and 2 blanks
If you were taking a correspondence approach to memory, would you mark their accuracy as 8/12 (66%) or 8/10 (80%) and why?
8/10 (80%) would be correspondence
It is focused on the accuracy of what was reported (outcome) not on the quantity of what was remembered (traditional approach).
- This approach is more important for real world memory*
- (S.H = storehouse metaphore, C = correspondence)*
What is the Recall-Recognition Paradox as described by Koriat and Goldsmith?
Recognition is better in the lab but recall is better in eyewitness studies.
This made traditional memory researchers believe that recognition memory was better than recall memory but that was only because they were looking at it a certain way.
Why does the Recall-Recognition Paradox occur according to Koriat and Goldsmith (1994)?
It is a function of methodology.
What are the methodological differences that lead to the Recall-Recognition Paradox?
1) Memory property under consideration: Accuracy vs Quantity; In the eye-witness paradigm we are concerned with accuracy and the store-house paradigm we are interested in quantity.
2) Report Option: Forced vs Free; In list-learning approach, they are forced to give responses, whereas eyewitness studies people are free to withold answers
3) : Test Format: Recall vs Recognition; Eyewitness are looking at recall, list-learning is looking at recognition studies
How did Koriat and Goldsmith test the Recall-Recognition paradox?
They compared different methodologies by assessing memory by quantity and accuracy.
They compared the methodologies in an experiment where they orthoginally manipulated test format and report option
Experiments primarily focused on free recall and forced recognition however they also focused on forced recall and free recognition
What did Koriat and Goldsmiths 1994 first experiment regarding the recall-recognition paradox consist of?
General Knowledge test
and
Payoff Schedule
(maybe people can shift their report threshold if they are rewarded for being right vs punished for being wrong)
What were the results of the Koriat and Goldsmith (1994) experiment?
Test format (recall v recogntiion): did affact quantity; did not affect accuracy (much)
Response option (free v forced): did not affect quantity; did affect accuracy
When was accuracy greatest according to the results of the Koriat and Goldsmith (1994) experiment?
Free Recall Conditions
As in eyewitness studies
When did participants produce the most information according to the results of the Koriat and Goldsmith (1994) experiment?
In forced recognition paradigms
If you are forced to give an answer, but it seems to come as a cost to accuracy
What was the key finding in terms of accuracy from the Koriat and Goldsmith 1994 study?
The opportunity to withold answers allows you to boost your memory performance.
What did Koriat and Goldsmiths second experiment on the recall-recognition paradox consist of?
Replicated experiment 1 results with list-learning paradigm
What did Koriat and Goldsmiths third experiment on the recall-recognition paradox consist of?
What were the results?
Had a strong incentive to increase accuracy
- Earn $ for each correct answer and lose everything for one incorrect answer
Free report only (Recognition vs. Recall)
Results: INcreased accuracy but reduced quantity. Participants used a more stringent screening policy.
What is this model and who was it developed by?
Important for exam
A model of monitoring and control in memory
Developed by: Koriat and Goldsmith
Model is only for memory in free report conditions.
Explain this model of monitoring and control in memory.
Input question (e.g. what is the capital of X)
They try to retrieve the memory from LTM (during the retrival process they are monitoring how easy it was the recall the answer)
They then get the answer and assess the probability of the accuracy of the answer (Assessed probability = Pa)
The Pa gets compared to the set response criterion probability (Prc)
If the assessed probability is greater than the set response crtierion they volunteer the answer.
If it doesn’t exceed the criterion they withold it.
What are situational things you can do to modify the report criterion (threshold)?
Report Option (e.g. free or forced)
Accuracy Incentive (e.g. tell whole truth or tell me as much as you can)
What is the most important thing according to Koriat and Goldsmiths model to modify how people report their memory?
The Report Criterion.
- E.g. situational demands / payoffs*
- e.g. Whether the report criterion is strict or relaxed, free or forced, payoff incentives for correct answers etc.*
What was the methodology for the model of monitoring and control in memory described by Koriat and Goldsmith (1994)
Phase 1: Forced report recall or recognition test of GK questions + subjective confidence reported after each answer
Phase 2: Free report recall or recognition (they get the option of whether or not they want to stick with the original answer)
According to Koriat and Goldsmiths model what are the 4 implications for how we should study memory?
Memory should be based on:
1) Overall retention
2) Monitoring effectiveness (how effective are we at monitoring our accuracy of answers)
3) Control sensitivity (where they set the report threshold)
4) Report criterion setting (how do people shift the criterion around)
What is the Quantity-Accuracy Trade-off described by Koriat and Goldsmith?
The more information we are willing to give the less accurate our answers will be.
- a = if you are a perfect monitor (curve a)*
- b = prototypical e.g. imperfect (linear relationship between accuracy and quantity)*
- c = no discrimination e.g. traumatic brain injury, no idea of memory (decrease in quantity as you become more strict in criterion)*
Explain the Signal Detection Theory for explaining decisions in memory.
x axis = memory strength
It respects a monotonic (ordinal) relationship that can be determined
Middle line is the threshold (past line = yes seen it before, before line = no haven’t seen it)
- The area under the curve is the frequency of which you will observe responses in the data
What is the criticism of using Signal Detection Theory (SDT) for memory?
Traditional SDT does not distinguish between strength of evidence and subjective confidence.
We want to know the correlation between subjective confidence and accuracy and traditional SDT doesn’t do that.
Since traditional SDT was criticised for not being good for memory measurement, what is type-2 SDT?
Instead of calculating d’ (d-prime) you are calculating Meta-d’ (meta-d prime)
What is Meta-d’ (meta-d prime) in SDT 2?
How well does confidence discriminate correct from incorrect responses?
Is the correspondence vs. the storehouse approach to memory regarding
where you conduct the experiment
or
the way you conduct it
important for exam
The way you conduct it (methodology)
