Key Terms: What's What Flashcards
Ancien Regime
Refers to the political and social system of France before the French Revolution of 1789. People were members of an Estate and subjects of the King.
First Estate
- Clergy of the Roman Catholic Church
- Around 125,000 people (less than 0.5% of the population)
- Owned one-tenth of French land
- Held significant political power and controlled key institutions
- Exempt from taxes but paid a voluntary don gratuit
Second Estate
- Nobility
- Less than 3% of population
- Owned 1/4-1/3 of French land
- Exempt from the Taille
Third Estate
97% of the population. They consisted of the bourgeoisie, the san-culottes and the peasants.
Absolute Monarchy
A system where the monarch has complete authority over the lives of his people
Bourgeoisie
Middle-class urban dwellers who made a living through their intellectual skills or business practices.
Sans-Culottes
In 1792, the Parisian working class became known as the sans culottes. They were known for their revolutionary views.
‘King in Council’
Where new laws were made
Pays d’états
Regions where representative assemblies had retained the right to negotiate on the raising of taxes with the royal intendants. The Assembly kept part of the taxes raised to fund public spending in the region.
Généralités
The 34 areas into which France was divided for the purpose of collecting taxes and other administrative functions: each area was under the control of an intendant
Intendants
Officials directly appointed by and answerable to the Crown. They helped LXVI maintain his rule in the provinces and fed back information. They were responsible for finance, policing and justice.
Livres
The French unit of currency at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Tax farming
A system where the government agrees a tax assessment figure for an area which is then collected by a company that bids for the right to collect it.
Venality
- The custom of selling administrative offices which could be inherited by descendants.
- It was commonly practised as a way of augmenting royal income
Philosophes
Enlightenment thinkers. They were primarily interested in political institutions and the state of society. They sought out how to establish the basic priniples by which a state should be governed, the distributions of wealth and how individuals should live.
Guild
An organisation that tightly controls entry into a trade
Corvée (royale)
The obligation for every male to do unpaid labour service to maintain the King’s roads.
Gabelle
Indirect tax on salt and was collected by the ferme générale
Taille
A tax on property and income of the Third Estate. It was divided into
- Taille personnelle: Property,revenue, personal tax
- Tailee réelle: land and house property or household
Capitation
A poll tax
- The clergy paid Don Gratuit instead
- The Second estate payments varied depending on rank, status, occupation and property.
-There were 22 different tax classes
Vingtième
A direct tax of 5% of earnings from land, property, commerce, industry and official offices.
- Intended to be levied on all but the clergy won exemption and pays d’états won reduced rates
Parlements
The 13 ‘sovereign’ courts. They…
- Registered the King’s edicts
- Heard civil and criminal cases
- Controlled guilds, corporations & markets
- Controlled local government finances and law and order
Lit de justice
A royal session of the Paris Parlement for the compulsory registration of royal edicts
Edict
An official order or proclamation used by the king to enforce laws without needing approval from the Estates-General or other bodies.
Remonstrance
A document sent by a parlement to the monarch protesting against a royal decree or details of that decree
Diocese
An area served by a bishop. it is made up of a large number of parishes.
Plurality
The holding of more than one bishopric or parish by an individual.
Absenteeism
When bishops never visited their diocese mainly due to plurality.
Tithe
A payment to the Church amounting to a tenth of income
Don Gratuit
- A ‘voluntary gift’ paid by the Church every 5 years
- Approximately 2% of the Church’s total revenue.
- This was offered in lieu of direct tax
Noblesse d’épée
“Nobles of the Sword” were hereditary nobility.
Noblesse de robe
- Acquired noble status usually because of the venal jobs they did.
- Over 70,000 of them by 1789
Cahiers de doléances
Ledgers of complaints compiled in early 1789 in preparation for the meeting of the Estates – General in May 1789. 40,000 were produced.
Palace of Versailles
The royal palace of the Bourbons and the seat of royal government built outside of Paris by Louis XIV.
Feudal dues
Financial or work obligations imposed on the peasantry by landowners
Seigneur
- Land-owning nobles
- Had considerable influence & ran their own courts
- Regarded themselves superior to intendants
Royal Domain
- Taxes on Crown lands
- Collected by régie générale
The Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement that spread across Europe during the eighteenth century.
Seven Years’ War
1756-1763
- Britain and France
- Costed 1.3 billion livres
- Ended in the disastrous economic loss of all French colonial possessions in North America
American War of Independence
American Revolution 1775-1783
Conflict arose from tension over taxation between Britain and its 13 North American Colonies. America won their independence from Britain
Deficit
When expenditure is greater than income it results in a defecit.
Palais Royale
Duc d’Orléans home which became a centre for revolutionary speeches
Revolt of the Nobles
Series of uncoordinated and sporadic uprisings across France in the spring/ summer of 1788, often led by nobles
Day of Tiles
7 June 1788 a day of riots in Grenoble. The royal troops who attempted to restore order were pelted with stones and roof slates.
Eden Treaty
1786 Treaty which allowed the imports of British goods, including textiles, at a reduced rates of import duties.
Politicisation
A process in which people who were previously unconcerned with politics take an active interest in political issues which affect their daily lives.
Voting by order
Each estate votes separately on any issue. Any two states together would outvote the third.
Voting by head
Decisions taken by the Estates-General would be agreed by a simple vote with a majority sufficent to agree any policy. This favoured the Third Estate, which had the most deputies.
National Assembly
Formed on the 10th June 1789 and named the National Assembly on the 17th June 1789.
National Guard
1789-1790:
- The first National Guard was set up in Paris in 1789 from soldiers that had defected to the revolutionary cause. Voluntary militia groups were united under the command of Lafayette in 1790.
1792:
- A more radical revolutionary force that fought for the sans-culottes and enforced the wishes of the Assembly.
- It remained a powerful political influence until 1795
Tennis Court Oath
20th June 1789 the deputies met and swore an oath not to disband until France had a constitution.
Sénace Royale
Session of the Estates-General in the presence of the monarch
Lettres de cachet
Sealed instructions from the Crown allowing detention without trial of a named individual
Bastille
- Parisian fortress-prison for political detainees
- Located in working-class Faubourg Saint-Antoine
- Seen as a symbol of repression, despotism, and lettres de cachet
- Stormed on 14 July 1789
Constituent Assembly
9 July 1789 - 30 September 1791.
9 July 1789: National Assembly took a resolution to call itself the ‘Constituent Assembly” since its purpose was to draw up a constitution.
Paris Commune
- A Municipal council set up illegally in Paris in 1789.
- They became an elected body in 1790 with delegates from the 48 sections.
- Replaced in 1794
Counter-revolution
Groups and individuals hostile to the Revolution, who wished to reverse any changes it made at the earliest opportunity.
August Decrees
5-11 August 1789. The proposed changes were given in decrees and stated that “The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely”
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Issued on the 26th August 1789, DOROMAC was the framework for the new constitution as it summarised the revolutionaries’ ideals and was derived from Enlightenment principles.
Constitution
A written document detailing how a country is to be governed, laws made, powers apportioned and elections conducted.
Nationalisation of Church land
Church land was taken in to state control
Assignats
Government bonds, issued to aid the purchase of Church land; used as paper money and accepted by domestic and international creditors.
Biens nationaux
The nationalised property of the Church as ordered by the decree of 2 November 1789
Suspensive veto
The right to delay a measure proposed by the Assembly
Tuileries Palace
A former royal residence which had been abandoned 100 years previously and had since housed royal pensioners and members of royal staff.
Constitutional Monarchy
Where the powers of the Crown are limited by a constitution. Also known as a limited monarchy
Departements
On 26th February 1790, 83 new divisions for local administration in France were created to replace the old divisions of the Ancien Regime
Commune
The smallest administrative unit in France
Active citizens
Men over 25 who, depending on the amount of taxes paid, could vote and stand as deputies
Passive citizens
Approximately 2.7 million citizens who enjoyed the civil rights provided by the DOROMAC but paid insufficient taxes to qualify for a vote
Contribution foncière
A land tax from which there were no exemptions or special privileges
Contribution mobilière
A tax on movable goods such as grain, payable by active citizens
Patente
A limited tax on commercial profits
Le Chapelier Law
June 1791 law that forbade trade unions and employers’ organisations. Collective bargaining, picketing and strikes were declared illegal.
Laissez-faire
A concept of limited government intervention so the economy is driven by fair competition and natural laws of supply and demand
Free trade
Trade without the imposition of taxes and duties on goods.
Penal code
A list of laws of France and the punishments for breaking those laws. Guillotine was introduced and approved by the Legislative Assembly in March 1792.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
12th July 1790, it was a decree which effectively made the Church subservient to the state. LXVI forced to accept in December 1790.
- The administrative structure was reorganised
- Clegymen became paid state officials
- Bishops & Priests were elected
Oath of Loyalty
27 November 1790: Assembly decreed that all the clergy “shall swear.. to be faithful… and maintain with all their power the constitution decreed by the National Assembly”. If they didn’t swear the oath, they were deprived of their offices and livings.
Non - juring / refractory priests
The members of the clergy who refused to take the new oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution. (Refractory Priests is specific to Priests)
Jacobins
- Left wing
- Met daily with initally all Deputy membership but soon expanded despite high fees.
- August 1790: 152 affiliated Jacobin clubs
- 1791: Adopted a more radical position leading to the more moderate group Feuillants to form.
Cordeliers
- Left wing and claimed to protect citizens’ rights and keep a watch on the activities of the Assembly
- Minimal membership fee and open to all including women and passive citizens
- Danton and Desmoulin founded the Club & Marat was a member
- Home to radical democratic and republican ideas.
- Highly influential in Parisian politics and became home to ultra-revolutionary factions e.g Hébertists.
Société de 89
- Founded by Sieyès
- Meeting place of supporters of the constitutional monarchy
- Met at the Palais-Royal and charged a high membership fee
- Members included Lafayette, Bailly, Mirabeau and Condorcet.
Insurrection
An uprising of ordinary people, predominantly the sans-culottes
Flight to Varennes
- Failed attempted escape of Louis XVI and the royal family.
- Took place on the 20-21 June 1791
- The National Assembly escorted the royal family back to Paris.
Feuillants
- More moderate
- Constitutional monarchists
- Broke away from the Jacobin Club after it became too radical and following the flight to Varennes
- Produced La Gazette but was dissolved in November 1793
- Lafayette was a member
Champ de Mars massacre
- The meeting was organised by the Cordeliers Club on the 17th July to sign a petition for the establishment of a republic
- 6,000 people attended but the Assembly & Paris Commune sent Lafayette and the National Guards to ensure order but this led to violence and roughly 50 were killed.
- The radicals felt this was a betrayal of the ‘people’ by the moderates, a ‘massacre’.
Martial law
The suspension of civil liberties by the State in an attempt to restore public order when there is severe rioting and mass disobedience.
Self-denying Ordinance
Members of the National Assembly were not permitted to stand for election of the new Legislative Assembly. This was a proposal made by Robespierre
Legislative Assembly
Came into existence in October 1791 and was the second elected Assembly to rule during the Revolution. It differed from the National/Constituent Assembly in that all members were directly elected.
Girondins
A small group of deputies from the Gironde and their associates, notably Brissot.
Émigrés
People mainly aristocrats who fled France during the Revolution. Many joined foreign opponents of the revolution.
Great Powers
Countries that were more powerful than others on the basis of their military, economic and territorial strength. The major ones were Austria, France, Prussia, Russia and Britain.
Declaration on Pillnitz
- Issued by Leopold II and Frederick William III of Prussia on the 27th August 1791
- Stated that the situation of the French King was of ‘common interest’ to all nations
- Stated that the powers of the French Crown should be restored
- They we’re ready to use force to bring about the restoration of royal power
Austrian Committee
Influential politicians and close confidants of Marie Antoinette who kept in close secret contact with Vienna, capital of the Habsburg Empire.
Brissotins/Girondins
- Brissot headed a group of 12 deputies from the departement Gironde
- Held strong views by favouring war and were against the extension of political rights to militant mobs
- Met in Madame Roland’s salon
Revolutionary War
Fought by France against other European powers between 1792 and 1802.
Fédéres
- Refers to the volunteer troops on 1792
- The Brissotin Minister of War, Joseph Servan proposed that armed volunteers from the provinces should be brought to Paris to receive military training and supplement the army.
Paris Sections
- A basic unit of municipal government in France.
- The 48 sections of Paris were known as Communes for their militancy.
- The general assemblies of the sections were strongholds for the sans culottes
- They went into permanent session in 1792 because of the war crisis and met continuously until September 1793.
- Most of the journées were organised through the sections
Bonnet rouge
The red cap popularly known as the cap of liberty which became an important symbol of the Revolution.
La Marseillaise
A patriotic song made by the composed by Rouget de l’Isle in 1792 and adopted the anthem of the Republic on 14th July 1795.
Universal Male Suffrage
The right to vote for every man over 21
La Partie en Danger
‘The fatherland is in danger’
- 11 July 1792 the Assembly declared a state of emergency by issuing this decree which called for every Frenchman to fight
Brunswick Manifesto
- Issued by the commander-in-chief of the Austro-Prussian armies
- Published in Paris on the 1st July 1792
- Stated that if LXVI was harmed they would inflict ‘exemplary vengeance’ on the city.
Revolutionary Journée
A day of popular action and disturbance linked to great political change.
Republic
- A political system which does not have a hereditary head of state and where supremacy of the people is recognised through mass democracy
- The First Republic September 1792 - 1804
The Plain
The majority of the deputies in the National Convention who were not committed to extreme radicalism, nor excessive moderation.
Montagnards
The name given to Jacobin deputies who occupied the upper seats to the left of the speaker in the tiered chamber of the National Assembly.
Armoire de fer
Appel nominal
Each deputy was required to declare publicly his decision on the guilt or innocence of LXVI
National Convention
September Massacres
L’Ami du Peuple
Decree of Fraternity
The Convention offered support to those in any state wishing to overthrow their rulers and establish democratic political systems.
The First Coalition
- A loose anti-French alliance created by Britain and consisting of the Netherlands, Spain, Piedmont, Naples, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Portugal.
- Russia refused to commit soldiers to the coalition when Britain did not send money to support Russia’s armies
Committee of General Security
Committee of Public Safety
- Effectively the government of France during 1793 - 1794
- One of the twin pillars of the Terror along with the CGS
The Terror
- March 1793 - August 1794 (roughly)
- Extreme policies were used by the Jacobin government to ensure the survival of the Republic
Republican Calender
Revolutionary Tribunal
A court specialising in trying those accused of counter - revolutionary activities
Representatives on mission
Mainly Jacobin deputies from the Convention sent to various parts of France to reassert government authority.
Watch committees
Summary execution decree
From 19 March 1793 any rebels captured with arms were to be executed immediately
Federalism
A rejection of the central authority of the State in favour of regional authority
Federalist Revolt
Egalitarianism
- Derived from ‘equality’
- The aim to have all citizens equal with no disparities in wealth, status or opportunity
Levée en masse
- All the resources of the State put at its disposal for military use.
- People, buildings and resources.
Total war
- All aspects of the state were used by the government to try and ensure victory
- Population, economy and buildings
Enrangés
An extreme revolutionary group led by Jacques Roux which had considerable influence on the Parisian sans-culottes.
Armée Revolutionare
Sans-culottes sent to the provinces to confront counter-revolutionary forces and ensure the movement of food supplies
Dechristianisation
Ruthless anti-religious policies conducted by some Jacobin supporters against the Chruch aimed at destroying influence
General Maximum
- Tables that fix the prices of a wide range of foods and commodities
- Law of General Maximum was passed on 29 September which fixed the prices of bread and essentials at one third above the prices of June 1790
- Wages were also fixed at 50% above the level of 1790
Law of Suspects
- Passed in September 1793
- Anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activity and undermining the Republic could be arrested and held without trial indefinitely
Agents Nationaux
- National agents apointed by and responsible to the central government.
- Role was to monitor the enforcement of all revolutionary laws
Indulgents
Supporters of Danton and Desmoulins who wished to see a relaxation of the Terror
The Great Terror
Law of 14 Frimaire
Law of 22 Prairial
- Passed on 10 June 1794, targeting enemies of the people
- No witnesses, judgments based on jurors’ conscience, no defense allowed
- Only verdicts: death or acquittal
- Most severe revolutionary law, aimed to increase convictions
- Led to the Great Terror
Cult of the Supreme Being
- Robespierre’s alternative civic religion to the Catholic faith
- Convention accepted it in a decree of 7 May 1794
Festival of Reason
Laws of Ventose
Property of those recognised as enemies of the Revolution could be seized and distributed among the poor
Coup of Thermidor
The overthrow of Robespierre and his closest supporters which marked the end of the Terror
Thermidorian Reaction
White Terror
Muscadins/Jeunesse dorée
The Directory
The Directory of Five
Council of Five Hundred
Council of Ancients
Mandats
Coup
Dry guillotine
Treaty of Campo Formio
War of the Second Coalition
Egyptian Campaign
Consulate
Infernal Machine
Plebiscite
Consul for Life
Legion of Honour
Imperial Nobility
Lycées
Imperial University
Le Moniteur
Concordat
Peace of Amiens
Organic Articles
Official Catechism
Concordat of Fontainebleau
Tribunate
Civil Code/Napoleonic Code
Prefects
Gendarmerie
Civilian/Administrative Police
Banque de France
Continental System
Sale of Louisiana
Battle of Trafalgar
Confederation of the Rhine
War of the Third Coalition
Peace of Tilst
Pays alliés/Satellite states
Pays réunis
Inner empire
- Consisted of pays réunis and the pays alliés immediately beyond this
- Well-integrated, efficently administered and largely obedient
- Policy of ralliement created a loyal administrative class
Outer empire
- Remianing pays alliés and conquered territories
- Less enthusiastic about French rule
- Administrative control rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French professionals both who were unpopular with their subjects
France First
Dotations
- Introduced in 1806
- Endowment which granted individuals revenue rights from seized Italian, German, or Polish lands under imperial control
- Heritable through the male line, but not sellable without the Emperor’s consent
- Recipients swore loyalty to the Emperor
Berlin Decree
Milan Decree
Serfdom
A system in which people were the property of the landowner
Grand Armée
Jourdan’s Law
Peninsular War
Guerilla Warfare
- Military action by irregular bands avoiding direct confrontation with the larger opposing forces.
- Suprise ambushes, night raids and vicious attacks
- They did not wear uniforms in order to blend in with civilians
Treaty of Schönbrunn
- 14 October 1809
- Austria lost 83,000 km² & 1/6 of its population
- France gained Adriatic lands, Croatia, Carinthia & Carniola
- Russia took East Galicia, Grand Duchy of Warsaw got West Galicia
- Bavaria expanded its territory
- Austria paid indemnity, reduced army to 150,000, and joined the Continental System
- Alliance sealed by Napoleon’s marriage to Marie-Louise
War of the Fourth Coalition
Malet Conspiracy
- Malet was a former Jacobin General who had been imprisoned for opposition to Napoleon.
- October 1812: Maler put a rumor that Napoleon died in Moscow
- Persuaded troops to arrest officials & restore the republic.
- An officer’s suspicion led to his arrest, interrogation, and execution.
- Exposed the Empire’s dependence on Napoleon.
First Peace of Paris
Vienna Congress
- Hosted by Emperor Francis I of Austria, lasting 8 months and costed the equivilent £7 million
- Business handled through informal talks & 10 committees
- Full assembly met only in June 1815 to sign what they thought would be the final agreement
- Francis hosted 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 grand duchesses, 32 German royals, plus servants
- 215 princes, officials, and state representatives also attended
Second Peace of Paris
Bourbon Restoration
Hundred Days
20 March 1815 - 22 June 1815
- Napolean resumed rule after his escape from Elba where he signed his second abdication
- Napolean tries to establish a new form of government through Acte Additionel
- Also preoccupied by defeating his old enemies
Acte Additionel
- Prepared by Benjamin Constant
- Legislative power was held by the Emperor and a 2-chamber Parliament: hereditary peers appointed by the Emperor and representatives 629 elected citizens serving 5-year terms elected by electoral colleges in départements
- Ministers were accountable to Parliament until rights were guaranteed
- Lasted only a month, ending after Napoleon’s second abdication
Conseil d’Etat
- Council of State
- Dealt with major issues of state and foreign affairs
- Met in presence of King
Conseil des Dépêches
- Met in presence of King
- Received despatches from the King’s officials in the provinces and dealt with Church affairs
Conseil Royal des Finances
- Met in presence of King
- Managed state finance and household cost
- From 1787 it handled economic policy
