Key Terms Flashcards
1
Q
Nouns
A
Proper, abstract, concrete (countable or mass e.g. doesn’t Take a plural form), collective
2
Q
Verbs
A
Material, relational, mental/stative, verbal, dynamic, transitive, intransitive, modal, auxiliary, modal auxiliary, copular, deontic modal, epistemic modal
3
Q
Material verb
A
Show actions or events e.g. hit, jump, wash, build, write, watch
4
Q
Relational verb
A
Identify properties or show states of being e.g. be, appear, seem, become. STATIVE verbs in a non-continuous stats e.g. you wouldn’t say ‘I am owning a Hummer’ ‘I own a hummer’, ‘my car needs a battery, ‘my car is needing a battery’
5
Q
Mental/ stative Verb
A
Perceptions, cognitive processes and feelings e.g. think, feel, believe
6
Q
Verbal verb
A
Shows external processes of communicating through speech e.g. say, shout, scream, whisper
7
Q
Dynamic verb
A
Actions which have definite starts and ends e.g. run, watch
8
Q
Transitive
A
Have a direct object- ‘I went for a run’ went, rather than ‘I ran’? Requires an object to receive the action e.g. discuss
9
Q
Intransitive
A
Doesn’t have a direct object- I ran
10
Q
Modal
A
Verbs which indicate a level of possibility or obligation e.g. may, can, must
11
Q
Auxiliary/ primary auxiliary
A
Verbs which assist the main verb- be, do, have e.g. have eaten
12
Q
Modal auxiliary
A
Verbs which both assist the main verb and indicate possibility and obligation- may eat, could go
13
Q
Copular
A
Linking verb- be, is, was- ‘the stew smells good’, connects a subject to its compliment
14
Q
Deontic modal verb
A
More certainty ? Obligation, permission, requesting, granting and commanding. ‘You must do this’ ‘Would you stop’, ‘you can go’, ‘you may do it’
15
Q
Epistemic modality
A
Express a speaker’s opinion about a statement. ‘I would like’ ‘I think it may be raining’ Decide whether it is deontic or epistemic based on context
16
Q
Adjectives
A
Base, comparative, superlative , attributive predicative post/pre modifying
17
Q
Adverbs
A
Time, place, manner, frequency
18
Q
Adverb of time
A
Indicates when something occurs- later, soon, yesterday
19
Q
Adverb of place
A
Indicates where something occurs- near, far, close
20
Q
Adverb of manner
A
Indicates how something occurs- bold, lively, highly
21
Q
Adverb of frequency
A
How often something occurs- always, never, sometimes
22
Q
Pronouns
A
Personal, demonstrative (when it doesn’t modify a noun), indefinite
23
Q
Personal pronoun
A
I- first person singular, you- 2nd person singular/plural, she- third person singular, they- third person plural
24
Q
What can you break personal pronouns into further
A
Subject/ object- I = first person singular subject pronoun, me= first person singular object pronoun AND gender e.g. ‘she’ is feminine
25
Demonstrative pronoun
Sense of pointing, pronoun unless modified a noun, then a determiner
26
Possessive pronoun
Mine (singular 1st person), ours (plural 1st person), yours (2nd person singular/plural), his hers its (singular 3rd person ), theirs (plural 3rd)
27
Indefinite pronoun
Refers to a person, object or idea that is non-specific- someone, anybody, everything
28
Reflexive pronoun
Myself, ourselves, yourselves, himself herself itself, themselves - can also be split into 1st person singular etc
29
Possessive determiners
My, our, your, his/her/its, their
30
Determiners
Possessive determiners, demonstrative determiners, definite article (the), indefinite article (a/an), quantifiers (one, some, any, a few)
31
Conjunctions
Correlative (either… or), co-ordinating (equal clauses), sub-ordinating (one clause dependent on other e.g. because, although, while)
32
Semantics
Semantic field, Denotation, connotation, synonym/antonym, collocation, euphemism/ dysphemism, hypernym (umbrella term like animals)/hyponym (part of a larger term, dog)
33
What is ‘animal’
Hypernym
34
What is ‘animal’
Hypernym
35
Is it a hyponym or a hypernym that is the umbrella/ generic term like ‘planets’
Hypernym
36
What is syntax
The study of phrases, clauses and sentences
37
Affixes
Suffix, prefix, inflectional function (show tense -s), derivational function (un- etc)
38
Qualifier
An additional word/ phrase that adds some further detail to the noun e.g. in the corner
39
Phrases
Noun phrase, verb phrase
40
Auxiliary verb types
Primary auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary verb
41
Clauses
Subject, object, complement, adverbial. Can be coordinate or subordinate
42
Complement
Modifies or describes subject/ object
43
Adverbial clause
A subordinate clause that functions as an adverbial. Explain time, place, manner and purpose
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Noun clause
A subordinate clause that functions as a subject, object or compliment
45
Active voice
‘Beast seriously injured baby’ This gives prominence to the fox and its actions, emphasised by the verb phrase being modified by the adverb seriously
46
Passive voice
‘Baby is mauled by fox’, prominence is given to the victim of the attack
47
What does it show when passive constructions omit the agent entirely?
Places even more emphasis on the entity affected by the verb and/or avoids drawing attention to the person responsible for the action. May be done for many PURPOSES- to sensationalise an event or to tactically avoid identifying the cause of an action
48
Examples of passive omitting agent
The children’s playground was closed- focus is on event, removes any possible sense of agency or blame as closure is shown as a completed action
49
A sentence marked by a capital letter and full stop but containing no verb
Orthographic sentence- give a punchy, emphatic stress to an idea/feeling. E.g. ‘Bump bump. Pause’ said to emphasise the increasing sound of a strange noise and his own increasing terror
50
Relative pronouns
Who(m), which, that, whose
51
Relative clause
A clause which adds more information and is introduced by a relative pronoun- ‘the dog, whose name is Milo,’ (this is in an embedded subordinate clause)
52
A clause which exists in brackets
Parenthetical clause
53
Minor/fragment sentence
Incomplete sentence (missing one or more of SVO)
54
Sentence functions
Interrogative, declarative, imperative, exclamative
55
Disguised imperative/ mitigated imperative
It’s quite cold in here= shut the window
56
Ellipsis
Omission of words ‘what would you like for lunch? Ham sandwich’ ‘I would like’ is ellipted
57
Hegemony
How one social group can use language to get to their people to accept its way of seeing the world as natural
58
Pejorative term
A judgemental term that usually implies disapproval or criticism
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Ideology
System of ideas
60
Linguistic relativity
The idea that the language we use to talk and write about things can determine the way we think about them
61
Stigmatise
To mark something or someone out as disgraceful or shameful
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Reappropriating
Reclaiming a word or phrase that has come to mean something insulting and using it as if it were normal or even complimentary
63
Immediate/ wider context example
Article criticising Nicole Kidman/ ‘celebrity culture’, intense public interest in the private lives of famous people, and differences in society’s attitudes towards women and towards men
64
Homophonic representation
The use of single letters and numbers to represent words based on a similarity in sound (M8)
65
Difference between acronym and initialism
Acronym sounds like a word initialism pronounced letter by letter
66
Deviant spelling
Deliberately non-standard spelling for effect
67
Over-lexicalisation
Using more words that you really need to convey an idea, to add emphasis
68
Copular verb:
* A copular verb links the subject to a noun or adjective that complements the subject.
* The most common copular verb is the verb ‘is’ (and all of its conjugations like am, were and are).
* Other examples are: appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become and get.
69
Copular examples
* The food tastes amazing.
* Here, 'food' is the subject and 'amazing' is the adjective complementing the 'food'. So 'tastes' is the copular verb.
* Henry is bad at football.
* Here, 'Henry' is the subject and 'bad' is the adjective complementing 'Henry'. So 'is' is the copular verb.
* Margaret feels angry.
70
Dynamic -
actions with a start and end. Can be material or verbal. Shout, hit, build
71
Senaca material verb
Material verbs are concerned with events.
Anna drove to work.
* Drove is the material dynamic verb.
James parked his car.
* Parked is the material dynamic verb.
72
Verbal verb
Verbal verbs are concerned with a communication. Sang, shouted
73
Stative senaca
Stative verbs describe actions/states which are quite constant.
* For example, think, believe and love.
* These can be broken down into mental (or cognitive) or relational.
74
* Ellie thought about writing a book.
* Here, ‘thought’ is a stative mental verb.
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Relational stative verbs
Relational stative verbs show the relation between things or show a state of being.
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Stative relational verbs examples
* Isaac owns three cars.
* Here, 'owns' is a stative relational verb.
* The box contains my socks.
* Here, 'contains' is a stative relational verb.
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Transitive verb
When verbs have a direct object, we can describe them as being transitive. When verbs do not have a direct object, we can describe them as being intransitive.
Jake bought a new phone.’Bought’ is a transitive verb. The teacher smirked. ‘Smirked’ is not followed by an object. So 'smirked' is intransitive.
78
As well as voice, a verb also has a mood. These moods are:
imperative, indicative, interrogative, conditional and subjunctive.
79
The imperative mood
The imperative mood is where there is a command.
* Listen to me!
* Hurry up.
* Make me a sandwich, please.
80
The indicative mood
The indicative mood indicates a fact.
* He will never be satisfied.
* Patrick plays the guitar.
* George visited his grandmother yesterday.
81
The interrogative mood
The interrogative mood is where there is a question.
* Have you read this?
* Will you marry me?
* Are you friends with Tammy?
82
The conditional mood
The conditional mood expresses a proposition.
* The conditional mood is made up of the modal verb 'would' + the infinitive verb (without the 'to').
* I would live in London, If I could afford it.
* If she had arrived earlier, we would have had a party.
* I would like sushi for dinner.
83
The subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood describes a hypothetical situation.
E.g. ‘It is important that you agree to these terms.’ This is a hypothetical situation because you have not yet agreed to these terms.
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More example of subjunctive mood
‘I recommend that you buy a new dress for the wedding.’ This is a hypothetical situation because you have not bought a dress.
‘If I were you, I would be careful.’ This is a hypothetical situation because I am not you!
85
Adverb
Time manner place frequency
86
Adverb of place eg
Place (indicates a location). E.g.:
* Inside.
* Outside.
* Near.
* Close to.
87
Adverb of time
Time (indicates a time). E.g.:
* Soon.
* Tomorrow.
* Later.
* Yesterday.
88
Adverb of frequency
Frequency (indicates how often something happens). E.g.:
* Always.
* Never.
* Sometimes.
* Occasionally.
89
What pronoun is ‘I’
Singular subject first person personal pronoub
90
Singular object first person
Me
91
‘We’
Plural subject first persob
92
Plural object first person
Us
93
Singular subject second person
You
94
You
Can be singular subject 2ND person, singular object 2ND person, or plural subject 2ND person or plural object 2ND person
95
Singular subject third person pronoun
He/she/it
96
Him/her/it
Singular object third person pronoun
97
They
Plural subject third person
98
Them
Plural object third person
99
Possessive pronouns: mine/ours
Mine is singular first person and ours is plural first person
100
Possessive pronouns: yours/yours
Singular/plural second person
101
Possessive pronouns: his/hers/its and theirs
Singular third person and plural 3RD persob
102
Reflexie pronouns: myself / ourself
First person singular / plural
103
Second person singular/plural reflexive pronoun
Yourself/ yourselves
104
Third person singular/plural reflexive
Himself/herself/itself or themselves
105
Relative pronoun v demonstrative
Relative pronouns link the noun to a clause. Demonstrative pronouns direct attention towards something.
106
Relative pronoun examples
Relative pronouns include (but are not limited to) who, what, where.
* Izzy, who played the saxophone, had a gig tonight.
* The pronoun 'who' links Izzy to the clause.
* Cigarettes, which are bad for your health, are very expensive.
107
Demonstrative pronouns examples:
This, those, these
108
Definite v indefinite
The vs a
109
There are two main types of determiners:
There are two main types of determiners: articles and quantifiers. Q
110
Quantifiers examples
Quantifiers can be specific or general and display a quantity.
* Henry VIII had six wives.
* I have lots of friends.
* I only have a few pens.
* I have many different pairs of socks.
111
Coordinating conjunctions
will work to join two of the same clause together (think co-operation) and these are conjunctions like ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but' and ‘yet'.
* The acronym ‘FANBOYS’ can help you to remember them:
* For.
* And.
* Nor.
* But.
* Or.
* Yet.
* So.
112
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions will join a main clause and a subordinate clause together.
* These include 'until', 'because' and 'before'.
I liked Patrick until he broke my necklace.
Because you have annoyed me, I am going home.
113
Antonyms
U
114
Homophones
Accept and except/Bear and bare/Pray and prey. Sound same
115
Homographs
Homographs describes words with the same spelling.
| * For example, read in ‘I read that book’ and ‘I like to read’. 'She is minute' and 'I will be ready in one minute'.
116
Homonyms
Homonyms= words with everything the same. So sounds and spelling. She is bright/ today is a bright day. Homonyms are words with the same sound and spelling, but different meanings
‘I can throw that can in the bin’
'I saw a bat' and 'have you seen my baseball bat?'
'I shall wave goodbye' and 'that is an enormous wave'.
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A morpheme can either be
A morpheme can either be free, bound, a prefix or a suffix.
*
118
Free morpheme
* A free morpheme can stand on its own.
| * E.g. Friend.
119
A bound morpheme
* A bound morpheme can be added to the start or end of a free morpheme. If a bound morpheme is added to the start of a free morpheme, it is called a prefix-bound morpheme. If it is bound to the end of the free morpheme, it is called a suffix-bound morpheme.
* E.g. Un (prefix-bound) + friend (free) + ly (suffix-bound) → unfriendly.
120
Attractive with a prefix-bound morpheme
* With a prefix-bound morpheme: unattractive.
121
Attractive with a suffix-bound morpheme
* With a suffix-bound morpheme: attractively.
122
A minor sentence or fragment
A minor sentence or fragment is NOT an independent full sentence. For example: ‘that is great’. Without an SVO order (subject, verb, object), it is not a grammatically standard sentence.
123
Sentence types
Fragment, Simple, compound, complex, compound-complex
124
Parenthetical clauses
Parenthetical clauses (occurs in brackets or dashes).
125
Relative clause
Relative clauses use a relative pronoun (see section of relative pronouns if you are unsure).
For example: ‘the cat, who was sitting on the mat, licked his paws’.
126
Relative clauses examples
Billie, who is my best friend, is very good at football.
'Who' is the relative pronoun introducing the relative clause.
My mother lives in London, which is my favourite city.
127
Noun phrase
A noun phrase is words around a noun.
The head word is surrounded by some form of description.
For example: ‘the old rusty car on the drive’.
We describe what comes before or after the head lexeme 'modification'. Modification comes in two forms – pre and post.
128
Noun phrase examples
The sweet, little bird with bright wings. The angry, snarling dog with great fangs. The fat man with bulging rolls.
129
Verb phrases
A verb phrase is words around a verb.
For example: 'Dan drove the car down the road'.
This is a verb phrase because it is words around the verb ‘drove’.
130
Verb phrases examples
Sally drove frantically to work. Edgar dragged the sack as quickly as he could.
Martha cried loudly down the phone.
131
Simple present
```
I walk.
You (sing.) walk.
She/he walks.
We walk.
You (pl.) walk.
They walk.
```
132
Simple present - examples
```
Jenny loves Paul.
Harry walks to the shops.
Matthew is a nightmare!
Benjamin sings twice a day.
We swim at the pool.
```
133
Present progressive
```
I am walking.
You (sing.) are walking.
She/he is walking.
We are walking.
You (pl.) are walking.
They are walking.
```
134
Present progressive - examples
Patrick is doing his homework.
Frank is lying about his secret girlfriend.
We are trying to find a solution to the problem.
You (pl.) are making me angry!
They are running for the bus.
135
Present perfect
```
I have walked.
You (sing.) have walked.
She/he has walked.
We have walked.
You (pl.) have walked.
They have walked.
```
136
Present perfect examples
Kenji has forced me to come to the party.
You have caused a scene!
We have decided to open a joint bank account.
You (pl.) (have forgotten) to sign the letter.
They (have rinsed) the dishes.
137
Present perfect progressive
```
I have been walking.
You (sing.) have been walking.
She/he has been walking.
We have been walking.
You (pl.) have been walking.
They have been walking.
```
138
Present perfect progressive - examples
They have been running for three hours.
She has been trying to find a dress since Monday.
Lucy has been deliberating whether or not to break up with her boyfriend.
We have been decorating our house for four months.
They have been wanting a child for years.
139
Grammar - Simple Past
```
I walked.
You (sing.) walked.
She/he walked.
We walked.
You (pl.) walked.
They walked.
```
140
Simple past - examples
He decided to quit smoking.
We partied until 6am.
You pretended to know the answer.
The thieves forced Billy to hand over his watch.
Jemima welcomed the guests into her home.
141
Past progressive
```
I was walking.
You (sing.) were walking.
She/he was walking.
We were walking.
You (pl.) were walking.
They were walking.
```
142
Past progressive examples
```
They were filming for three hours.
She was eating at the restaurant.
Roger (was dying) to know the truth.
Mildred was lying to her mother.
We were mocking the puppet show.
```
143
Past perfect
We use the past perfect tense when we are describing an action that has already happened before something else happened. We use the past perfect tense when we are describing an action that has already happened before something else happened.
144
Past perfect - examples
```
Sally had decided to quit her job.
They had walked three miles that day.
Felix had dared to ride a motorcycle.
We had ordered too many dishes at the restaurant.
You (pl.) have worked too many shifts.
```
145
Past perfect progressive
```
We use the past perfect progressive tense when we are describing an action that was continuous but is now complete. I had been walking.
You (sing.) had been walking.
She/he had been walking.
We had been walking.
You (pl.) had been walking.
They had been walking.
```
146
Past perfect progressive - examples
Veronica had been spending an obscene amount of money.
You (sing.) had been occupying my mind for days.
We had been deluding ourselves.
The children had been skating many times before.
I had been trying to lose weight.
147
Simple future
```
We use the future tense when we are describing an action that is going to happen in the future. I will walk.
You (sing.) will walk.
She/he will walk.
We will walk.
You (pl.) will walk.
They will walk.
```
148
Simple future - examples
I will marry him one day.
You (sing.) will spend too much money on your holiday.
Fred will march regardless of the weather.
They will dance awkwardly.
Molly will go on holiday next week.
149
Future progressive
We use the future progressive tense when we are describing an action that is continuous that will be happening in the future.
```
I will be walking.
You (sing.) will be walking.
She/he will be walking.
We will be walking.
You (pl.) will be walking.
They will be walking.
```
150
Future progressive - examples
You (sing.) will be asking too much of him.
Calvin will be debating for the team.
They will be rollerblading in the park.
Michael will be making the wrong choice.
We will be climbing the mountain this time tomorrow.
151
Future perfect
```
We use the future perfect tense when we are describing an action that will be completed in the future. I will have walked.
You (sing.) will have walked.
She/he will have walked.
We will have walked.
You (pl.) will have walked.
They will have walked.
```
152
Future perfect - examples
I will have decided by this evening.
You (sing.) will have performed in six operas by the end of the year.
They will have caused a big argument by saying that.
Stephen will have worked for three days straight.
My teacher will have marked our essays by tomorrow.
153
Future perfect progressive
```
We use the future perfect progressive tense when we are describing an action which is continuous and will be completed in the future. I will have been walking.
You (sing.) will have been walking.
She/he will have been walking.
We will have been walking.
You (pl.) will have been walking.
They will have been walking.
```
154
Future perfect progressive - examples
They will have been travelling for three months by time June comes around.
She will have been working for four years in January.
The students will have been studying for four years.
My mother will have been shopping twice a week for a year.
Jono will have been dating Violet for six months next week.
155
Semantics- semantic fields and collocates
Collocates- Another way words can be linked is through common association.
For example, salt and pepper, Ant and Dec and bread and butter.
Words that go together like this are called collocates.
Collocates don’t necessarily have to be known before but can be labelled following repeated use.
For example, Donald Trump repeatedly referred to Hilary Clinton as 'crooked Hilary' during the 2016 election.
156
Patterns in texts
Use of collocates in texts are worth exploring, particularly if a collocate is used more than once in a text.
If it does start to crop up again and again, we call this a pattern.
The examiner can reward you highly in AO1 for the recognition of patterns.
157
Collocates examples
Knife and fork, bride and groom, salt a d pepper, strawberries and cream, ant and dec
158
Hypernym vs hyponyms semantics
We call the category of word (in this case ‘dog’) a hypernym, and then we call all of its words hyponyms.
159
Semantics- Euphemism example
For example, newspapers will use a phrase like ‘friendly fire’ to describe the death of soldier caused by someone on the same side.
When text producers hide or soften the truth, we call this a euphemism.
160
Dysphemism
Dysphemisms offer a much more unpleasant version of a euphemism, for example labelling a mentally ill person as a ‘loony’.
Picking up on a euphemistic or dysphemistic phrase and explaining why it has been used can help you to score highly with AO3.
161
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is about looking at the meaning behind things. It takes into account how meaning can be inferred, especially considering the context in which it was produced and is being received.
162
Deixis- pragmatics
If you’ve ever joined in a conversation part way through, you may have experienced deixis.
For example, someone may say something like ‘I saw him there today’, and without being part of that conversation, you do not know who ‘he’ is and where ‘he’ was ‘today’.
163
Pragmatics- Deictic reference
A deictic reference is a comment which is context dependent. In other words, it isolates those who are not part of that group.
In articles written for specialists, you may find references to events/procedures which the idealised reader (the person who it was written for) would understand, but you do not.
164
Pragmatics- Denotation vs connotation
When considering a text’s semantical meaning, you will often consider what its denotation is. A denotation is a dictionary definition of a word.
When you take this further in pragmatics, you will often look at what the emotional attachment with the word is, and what the word implies. This is called a connotation.
For example, you may look at the denotation of the word ‘baby’ as being an infant, but you can also look at the romantic connotations of calling a partner ‘baby’.
165
Connotations examples
Red - passion
Manly - strong
166
Discourse Structure
Discourse structure is concerned primarily with how the text is structured – essentially the journey a text takes from start to finish.
167
Analysis of discourse structure
An understanding of how a text functions for the reader can help you attain the very highest AO1 marks in textual analysis questions. But it is not the sort of structure that you will have been asked to look at for GCSE English Language.
More than anything, a text will want to be cohesive which means features work together to produce the end result. You will need to look at a couple of areas: referencing and reader guiding.
168
Discourse structure- referencing
In terms of referencing, texts can look forward or back. Boring if: Rachel drove to work. Rachel then walked into her classroom. Rachel then made a cup of tea.
The piece becomes more effective if we use a reference which refers back to something we already know:
Rachel drove to work. She then walked into her classroom. She then made a cup of tea.
169
Discourse structure- Anaphoric and cataphoric references
Replacing ‘Rachel’ with ‘she’ is called an anaphoric reference. Anaphoric references look back at what has already been said.
On the opposite side of that, cataphoric references look forward (think cataphoric and catapult – a catapult flings you forward). For example:
After she drove to work, Rachel walked into her classroom and then made a cup of tea.
170
Discourse structure- Reader guiding
A reader can be guided through a text in many ways, and often you will have to think on your feet in the exam to spot this.
But most texts will use discourse markers which segments a discourse into sections.
In addition, headings will also clearly guide the reader to either a part of interest to them or to sum up what that section will be about.
Remember, the examiner does not want to see you just spotting these features – they want you to explain their function in guiding the reader
171
Graphology
Graphology is all about how a text appears.
For example, you may look at how a webpage makes it easy for a user to navigate, how font distinguishes certain areas of a text or capital letter use.
Graphology is valued by examiners, but lexical analysis is probably valued more highly.
172
Graphology - capital letters
For example, if a headline contains the words ‘MUST READ’, you may talk about how the norms have been manipulated.
173
Orthography
Orthography is all about spelling. You may wish to ou may still wish to look at text producers using non-standard spellings for an effect.
