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VMS2009 General Pathology and Concepts of Infectious Disease > Key Terminology & Definitions - Pathology > Flashcards

Key Terminology & Definitions - Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

Aetiology

A

Cause of disease

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2
Q

Pathogenesis

A

Mechanisms (progression from initial stimulus to disease expression) that lead to diseased state in response of cells and tissues to aetiologic agent.

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3
Q

Gross pathology

A

Recognition and description of macroscopic, morphological changes to tissues and organs in the live or dead animal at biopsy, surgical removal or PM examination.

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4
Q

Antemortem

A

Before death

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5
Q

Post mortem

A

After death

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6
Q

The examination of a body after death =

A

PM examination / necropsy / autopsy

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7
Q

Yellow

A

Icterus

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8
Q

Pallor

A

Loss of blood/anaemia

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9
Q

Red-purple

A

Congestion, sepsis, bruising

Haemorrhage

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10
Q

Green

A

Bile imbibition, pseudomelanosis (green-black) (bacteria making sulfur compounds (H2S) = smell), some fungi

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11
Q

Gelatinous

A

Oedema, serous atrophy of fat

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12
Q

Pluck

A

Trachea, tongue, larynx, thyroids and parathyroids, oesophagus, heart and lungs.

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13
Q

Agonal

A

Changes that occur at or around time of death

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14
Q

Algor mortis

A

Cooling of the body after death

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15
Q

Rigor mortis

A

Contraction of muscles after death (due to lack of ATP, no re-cock of myosin head).

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16
Q

Autolysis

A

Breakdown of tissue as result of enzymes contained within cells = self-digestion

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17
Q

Putrefaction

A

Breakdown of tissues by bacteria

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18
Q

Desiccation

A

Loss of H2O from tissues exposed to the air after death

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19
Q

Livor mortis

A

Pooling of blood in dependent sites due to gravity

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20
Q

White / grey / yellow

A

Lack of blood, necrosis, icterus, fibrosis

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21
Q

Black

A

Melanin (melanosis, flat, melanoma, raised)

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22
Q

Gas (consistency)

A

Trapped in tissue = emphysema or autolysis

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23
Q

Fluid (consistency)

A

Looks or feels wet = oedema, blood, transudates, fluid

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24
Q

Soft (consistency)

A

Fluid rich, cell/stroma poor

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25
Q

Firm (consistency)

A

Fluid poor, cell/stroma rich

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26
Q

Hard/gritty (consistency)

A

Mineralised stroma/matrix, cartilage, bone, calcified tissue

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27
Q

Innate immunity

A

Pre-existing frontline defence that is always there; normal immune system animals are born with (non-specific)

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28
Q

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)

A

Molecules with conserved motifs that are associated with pathogen infection that serve as ligands for host pattern recognition molecules such as Toll-like receptors (innate immunity)

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29
Q

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)

A

Recognise PAMPs and target them for clearance

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30
Q

Macrophage

A

APC - phagocytosis and activation of bactericidal mechanisms

Adaptive immunity) - stimulate already primed effector and memory T-cells (B cells as well

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31
Q

Dendritic cell

A

APC - antigen uptake in peripheral sites, specialised in activation of naive T-cells

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32
Q

Neutrophil

A

Phagocytosis and activation of bactericidal mechanisms

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33
Q

Eosinophil

A

Killing of antibody-coated proteins

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34
Q

Basophil

A

Promotion of allergic responses and augmentation of antiparasitic immunity

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35
Q

Mast cell

A

Release of granules containing histamine and active agents

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36
Q

Selectins

A

Bind carbohydrates and initiate leucocyte-endothelial interaction

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37
Q

Integrins

A

Bind to cell-adhesion molecules = an extracellular matrix, strong adhesion

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38
Q

Immunoglobulin superfamily

A

Various roles in cell adhesion, ligand for integrins

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39
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Engulfment and internalisation of materials such as microbes for their clearance and destruction

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40
Q

The complement system

A

A group of serum proteins circulating in inactive form, once activated —> target cell membrane lysis, chemotaxis, opsonisation to enhance phagocytosis

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41
Q

Opsonisation

A

Bacteria are altered by opsonins so as to become more readily and more efficiently engulfed by phagocytes
Enhancement of macrophages and phagocytosis

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42
Q

TLRs

A

Toll-like receptors (PRR) - innate immunity

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43
Q

CLRs

A

C-type lectin receptors (PRR) - recognise cell wall components - sugars/polysaccharides of bacteria/fungi

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44
Q

RLRs

A

Rig-i-like receptors (PRR) - RNA helicases, recognise viral RNAs

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45
Q

NLRs

A

Nod-like receptors (PRR) - sense bacterial products in products

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46
Q

Epitope

A

Part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself

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47
Q

cDC

A

Conventional dendritic cells - professional APC, constitute expression of co-stimulatory molecules and stimulate naive T cells

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48
Q

MHC

A

Major histocompatibility complex that presents antigen to T-cells (MHC I = CD8^+, MHC II = CD4^+)

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49
Q

MHC I

A

Co-expressed but not covalently linked - CD8^+ (cytotoxic T helper cells = co-receptor)

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50
Q

MHC II

A

Heterodimer of alpha and beta chain - CD4^+ (T helper cells = co-receptor)

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51
Q

Cytokines

A

Proteins that mediate the effector functions of the immune system, they have endocrine, paracrine and autocrine actions
Enhance the expression of adhesion molecules in acute inflammation
E.g. TNF and IL-1

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52
Q

Chemokines

A

Chemoattractants for different leucocytes
Large family of small, secreted proteins that signal through cell surface G protein-coupled heptahelical chemokine receptors
Stimulate the migration of cells, most notably white blood cells (leukocytes)
Large family of cytokines
Many act on granulocytes

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53
Q

Granulocyte

A

Type of white blood cell that has small granules, containing proteins,
E.g. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

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54
Q

CD

A

Cluster of differentiation molecule

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55
Q

Pleiotropy (cytokines)

A

One cytokine produces multiple effects

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56
Q

Redundancy (cytokines)

A

More than one cytokine induces the same effect

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57
Q

Synergy (cytokines)

A

Two (or more) cytokines work together to induce an effect

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58
Q

Antagonism (cytokines)

A

One cytokine can inactivate the effect of another

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59
Q

IL-1 family (cytokines)

A

Promote inflammation (most are proinflammatory)

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60
Q

Interferons (INFs)

A

A group of signalling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses

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61
Q

TNF

A

Tumour necrosis factor - cytokine that regulates development, effector function and homeostasis of cells of the skeletal, neuronal and immune systems

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62
Q

Adaptive immune responses

A

Humoral and cell-mediated responses using B and T lymphocytes, slower to develop and more specific

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63
Q

Antigen

A 
Processed peptide derived from a foreign or altered-self protein and presented by MHC class I (e.g. cytotoxic CD8 t cell) or II (e.g. helper CD4 t cell)
May be protein, lipid, carbohydrate, nucleic acid - soluble, particulate, simple or complex
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64
Q

BCR

A

Membrane-bound immunoglobulin

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65
Q

Antibody

A

Secreted immunoglobulin

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66
Q

CH regions

A

Encode for different isotypes (functional classes) of antibodies

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67
Q

Thymocyte

A

Very early T cell lymphocyte in the thymus

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68
Q

Positive selection

A

Selects thymocytes bearing receptors capable of binding self-MHC molecules, resulting in MHC restriction

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69
Q

Negative selection

A

Selects against thymocytes bearing high-affinity receptors for self-MHC/peptide complexes, resulting in self-tolerance

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70
Q

TREG cells

A

Regulatory T-cells - negatively regulate immune responses - deplete local area of stimulating cytokines, produce inhibiting cytokines, inhibit APC activity, directly kill T cells

71
Q

TREG cell - effector cytokine and effector functions

A

IL-10, TGR-beta (transforming growth factor) - regulation, suppression of immune and inflammatory responses

72
Q

TH17 cell - effector cytokine and effector functions

A

IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22 - inflammation

73
Q

TH2 cell - effector cytokine and effector functions

A

IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 - allergic and anti-helminth responses

74
Q

TFH cell - effector cytokine and effector functions

A

IL-4, IL-21 - B cell help in germinal centres

75
Q

TH1 cell - effector cytokine and effector functions

A

IFN-gamma, TNF - cell-mediated immunity, macrophage activation, inflammation

76
Q

TCM cells

A

Central memory T cells - live longer/divide more, can differentiate into several subsets depending on cytokine environment, IN 2^y lymphoid tissues

77
Q

TEM cells

A

Effector memory cells - first-line defences, rapidly re-acquire effector functions on second Ag exposure, in tertiary tissues e.g. LNs

78
Q

Avidity

A

Overall strength between the antibody and antigen

79
Q

MAC

A

Membrane attack complex - complex of proteins typically formed on the surface of pathogen cell membranes as a result of the activation of the host’s complement system, and as such is an effector of the immune system

80
Q

FC receptor

A

Antibody receptor involved in antigen recognition

81
Q

IgM Ab

A

First Ab produced in primary response (surface bound IgM is naive BCR).
Complement fixation leading to MAC formation and target lysis.
Formation of dense Ab-pathogen complexes that are efficiently engulfed by macrophages.

82
Q

IgG Ab

A

All variants bind Fc receptors, enhancing phagocytosis by macrophages, most abundant

83
Q

IgA Ab

A

Isotype found in secretions, doesn’t fix complement = no inflammation.
Effective at neutralising toxins and pathogens.

84
Q

IgE Ab

A

Allergy and asthma + protecting against parasitic helminths and protozoa.
Degranulation of eosinophils/basophils.
Release of molecules (pro-inflammatory e.g. histamine to damage large pathogens.

85
Q

Oedema

A

Release of excess fluid into tissues or body cavities

86
Q

Exudation

A

Release fluids from the circulation

87
Q

Exudate

A

Extracellular fluid (oedema) rich in protein and cells, has high specific gravity (thick, heavy, goopy)

88
Q

Pus

A

Purulent exudate - rich in leucocytes (mainly neutrophils), debris of dead cells and maybe microbes = inflammation (maybe infection)

89
Q

Transudate

A

Low protein content and little or no cellular material, low specific gravity e.g. heart, liver + kidney disease

90
Q

Erythema

A

Heat redness

91
Q

Endotheliotropic

A

Agent that directly targets endothelium

92
Q

Transcytosis

A

Transportation of fluids and proteins through endothelial cells

93
Q

VEGF

A

Vascular endothelial growth factor - mediator for transcytosis

94
Q

Stasis

A

Vascular congestion

95
Q

Lymphangitis

A

Secondary inflammation of lymphatic vessels e.g. bug bites going up arm

96
Q

Adeno

97
Q

Lymphadenitis

A

Inflammation of draining lymph nodes

98
Q

Reactive/inflammatory lymphadenitis

A

Increase in size of lymph nodes due to hyperplasia of lymphoid follicles

99
Q

Margination

A

When blood flow slows and stasis occurs, due to inflammation, the leucocytes start to make contact with the endothelial surface

100
Q

Selectins

A

Proteins which mediate rolling (three types), bind to ligands in response to cytokines

101
Q

Cytokines

A

Secreted by cells as part of the inflammatory response, enhance the expression of adhesion molecules

102
Q

L-selectin

A

Expressed on leucocytes, complementary to E-selectins

103
Q

E-selectin

A

Expressed on endothelial cells

104
Q

P-selectin

A

Expressed on platelets and endothelial cells (clotting)

105
Q

Integrins

A

Mediate the further rolling and slowing down of leucocytes to allow stronger adhesions to form; two types, beta-1 and beta-2

106
Q

ICAM-1

A

Leukocyte-associated transmembrane protein on endothelial cells, binds to beta-2 integrins on neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes

107
Q

VCAM-1

A

Leukocyte-associated transmembrane protein on endothelial cells, binds to beta-1 integrins on eosinophils, monocytes and lymphocytes

108
Q

Diapedesis/transmigration

A

Movement of leucocytes through endothelium, down a chemokine concentration gradient

109
Q

PECAM-1

A

Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule - mediates migration of leucocytes across vessel wall

110
Q

Leucocyte adhesion deficiencies

A

Characterised by recurrent bacterial infections due to inability of leucocytes to adhere and reach site of inflammation

111
Q

Chemotaxis

A

Migration of cells along a chemical gradient

112
Q

Exogenous chemotactic agents

A

Bacterial products e.g. lipids, peptides

113
Q

Endogenous chemotactic agents

A

Released by cells e.g. cytokines, complement system, arachidonic acid metabolites

114
Q

G protein-coupled receptors

A

Found mostly on leucocytes, recognise short bacterial peptides containing N-formylmethionyl residues

115
Q

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

A

Recognise components of different types of microbes e.g. bacterial lipopolysaccharide

116
Q

Cytokine receptors

A

Leucocytes express receptors for cytokines that are produced in response to microbes

117
Q

Opsonin receptors

A

Proteins used to coat organisms of particles for phagocytosis e.g. antibodies, complement proteins and lectins (binds to CHOs)

118
Q

Histamine

A

In mast cell granules, cell-derived mediator of inflammation, binds to H1 receptor on microvascular endothelial cells to cause dilation of arterioles and increased permeability of venules

119
Q

Serotonin

A

In platelets, certain endocrine cells + mast cells in some species, cell-derived mediator of inflammation, platelet released a reaction - causes dilation of arterioles and increases permeability of venules

120
Q

Heterophagy

A

Cell eating another cell

121
Q

Thrombosis

A

Abnormal clotting of blood

122
Q

Arachidonic acid

A

Oxidised to form pro-inflammatory (+ anti-inflammatory) material / degraded by cyclooygenase to form prostaglandins or 5-lipoxygenase to form leukotrienes and lipoxins

123
Q

Leukotrienes

A

Increased vascular permeability, vasoconstriction and bronchospasm (effects of asthma)

124
Q

Lipoxins

A

Inhibit neutrophil adhesion and chemotaxis

125
Q

NSAIDs

A

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, inhibits COX-1 and COX-2

126
Q

COX-1/COX-2

A

Cyclooxygenase-1/2

127
Q

Platelet-activating factor

A

Phospholipid-derived mediator - from platelets, basophils, mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages and endothelial cells

128
Q

Neuropeptides

A

Secreted by sensory nerves and leucocytes, includes substance P and neurokinin A

129
Q

Plasma protein derived mediators

A

Group of plasma proteins triggered by antibody fixation or microbial antigens, cause inflammation, phagocytosis and cell lysis

130
Q

Catar

A

Mucous + serous inflammation (inc fluid + neutrophils), in gut

131
Q

Abscess

A

Junction between acute and chronic inflammation, when pus not cleared up, exudate is firm, doesn’t have enzyme in neutrophils to continue pus production

132
Q

Gamma-delta-T cell

A

Functions like cells of immune system (+ NK T-cell)

133
Q

B-cell specific receptor

A

Detects antigen in naive, natural state

134
Q

T-cell specific receptor

A

Antigen is processed and presented by MHC I/II

135
Q

Immunoglobulin-alpha/beta (innate immunity)

A

Complex formed by B-cell with other transmembrane proteins (B-cell has very short cytoplasmic tail means itself cannot transmit signals upon engagement with antigen), have signalling motifs in their cytoplasmic chains

136
Q

ITAM

A

Immunoreceptor tyrosine kinase activatory motif, signalling motif in which its phosphorylation triggers signalling cascades leading to transcription of B-cells + their activation

137
Q

V(D)J recombination

A

The mechanism of somatic recombination that occurs only in developing lymphocytes during the early stages of T and B cell maturation. It results in the highly diverse repertoire of antibodies/immunoglobulins and T cell receptors (TCRs) found in B cells and T cells, respectively.

138
Q

DN

A

Double negative thymocytes - don’t express CD4 or CD8, undergo beta selection, involving combination of T-cell receptor gene segments, those that survive express both CD4 and CD8 = double-positive

139
Q

DP

A

Double positive thymocytes - undergo positive and negative selection to become a single positive (SP), only express CD4 or CD8
Negative selection screen removes autoreactive cells

140
Q

Antigen presenting cell

A

DC, macrophage and B-cells - increase expression of MHC II CD80 and CD86

141
Q

Fc receptors (adaptive immunity)

A

Fragment crystallisable region (Fc region) is the tail region of an antibody that interacts with cell surface receptors called Fc receptors and some proteins of the complement system. This property allows antibodies to activate the immune system.

142
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Cells too big

143
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Too many cells

144
Q

Dysplasia

A

Disorganised arrangement of cells and abnormal pattern of tissue growth
Poorly differentiated cells

145
Q

Metaplasia

A

Abnormal differentiation - change from one cell type to another

146
Q

Cyst

A

Distended space +/- content

147
Q

Atrophy

A

Cells too small

148
Q

Pyogranulomatous inflammation

A

Neutrophilic + granulomatous inflammation

149
Q

Coagulative necrosis

A

Tissue structure preserved, neutrophils

150
Q

Caseous necrosis

A

Loss of architecture, usually associated with granulomas, macrophages

151
Q

Liquefactive necrosis

A

Loss of structure, usually hard to capture on histology, neutrophils

152
Q

Haemorrhage

A

Erythrocytes outside blood vessels

153
Q

Thrombosis

A

Abnormal fibrin clotting inside vessels

154
Q

Congestion/hyperaemia

A

Too many erythrocytes inside blood vessels (alveolar septa)

155
Q

Thromboembolus

A

Abnormal material in blood vessel e.g. cartilage, bone, contrast medium, brain etc

156
Q

Hypersensitivity

A

Excessive reaction to antigens

157
Q

Autoimmunity

A

Immune system reacts to self-antigens

158
Q

Immunodeficiency

A

Immune system fails to respond when it should

159
Q

Amyloidosis

A

Creation of abnormal proteins that impair tissue function

160
Q

Atopy

A

Localised reactions, often progress from acute perivascular inflammation to chronic inflammation/type IV hypersensitivity

161
Q

Anergy

A

Inactivation of lymphocytes that antigen - no co-stimulatory signal, negative signal received

162
Q

Suppression (peripheral tolerance)

A

Mediated by T regulatory cells - produce IL-4, IL-10, TGF-beta to inhibit lymphocyte activation

163
Q

SLE

A

Systemic lupus erythematosus - prototypical autoimmune disorder, autoantibodies to range of cell components

164
Q

Predominant antibody

A

Antinuclear antibody (AA) - form immune complexes (like type III hypersensitivity) and deposit in glomeruli, blood vessels, skin, joints

165
Q

SCID

A

Severe combined immunodeficiency disorder - defects in humoral and cell-mediated immunity (T and B cells)
Often manifests as viral or fungal infections
Sever lymphoid hypoplasia

166
Q

Amyloid

A

Pathologic protein formed of beta-pleated sheets of non-branching fibrils

167
Q

Primary amyloidosis

A

Immune cell dysfunction, usually AL type, most common immune cell dysfunction that produces this is plasma cell tumour

168
Q

Secondary amyloidosis

A

(Also known as reactive systemic amyloidosis)
Chronic inflammation or tissue destruction, most common, in cheetahs with helicobacter gastritis, secondary to chronic inflammation (prolonged elevation of SAA), can be idiopathic or due to non-immunologic neoplasia (paraneoplasia = not plasma cells)

169
Q

Amyloid light chain (AL)

A

Derived from immunoglobulin light chain, associated with immunoglobulin secreting cells (B cells, plasma cells), usually primary amyloidosis

170
Q

Amyloid-associated (AA)

A

Derived from serum amyloid A (SAA) synthesised in the liver and released during systemic inflammation (acute), usually secondary amyloidosis

171
Q

A-β

A

Derived from amyloid precursor protein (APP), associated with amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer’s and other forms of canine neurodegeneration

172
Q

Familial amyloidosis

A

AA form - primarily deposits in kidneys - glomerular in cats, medullary in dogs, also in liver

173
Q

Amyloid of ageing

A

A-β form - cerebrovascular amyloidosis in old dogs, may also deposit in heat, GIT and lungs

VMS2009 General Pathology and Concepts of Infectious Disease (14 decks)

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