key studies Flashcards
comparing a word one at a time to each word-form stored in the mental dictionary
Foster- serial search model
using bins; comparing a word one at a time to each word-form stored in the mental dictionary
Foster and Murray- modified serial search model
advance knowledge of frequency should help decision most for high frequency words
IA-style parallel matching process
Gordon tested this (knowing frequency in advance helps for high frequency words)
consistent w parallel
Dual route model of dyslexia
surface- impaired exception words
phonological- impaired non words
deep- impaired all words
One direct route to translate both regular and exception patterns (providing they are relatively)
triangle model (Seidenberg)
ERP applied word by word.
exaggerated negative potential of about 400ms
N400 (Federmeier)
Distraction paradigm and retention interval
Brown-Peterson
retention rapidly declines over time then levels off
probed & free recall
Short interval words rapidly decay.
Long interval are more permanent
dual-trace theory
memory trace delays rapidly to start and then slows
single trace theory
stress and working memory
Ramirez and Beilock
writing up worries before a test could free up WM resources needed for test
VSTM can hold 3 or 4 objects
Luck and Vongel
Visual STS distinct from long-term visual memory
Phillips and Chrisite
Recency effect
Recency effect eliminated by 5 seconds of mental arithmetic
Shows WM and LTM as seperate stores
Economy principle
Collins and Quillian
properties stored higher up should take longer to retrieve
Longer retention interval does not necessarily increase forgetting
Bahrick et al
yearbook
Time versus intervening (similar) experiences
Baddeley and Hitch
rugby bois
encoding: depth of processing at acquisition
Craik and Tulving
processing the meaning is better than processing surface form
Encoding: organisation at acquisition
incidental memory
Mandler
shows that orgnising material is more helpful than trying to learn it
those trying to learn a list did worse than those sorting cards into categories
Fan effect in fact retrieval
Lewis and Anderson
if facts are thematically related, fan effects are eliminated
create multiple links among facts to remember
napoleon study
Encoding x retrieval: remembering as reconstruction
Barlett
war of ghosts
we interpret what we see via schema. fragments remembered from other episodic memories.
recall is reconstructive
Eye witness testimony
Loftus and Palmer- misinfo implied interrogation after the event
Coding x retrieval- context and encoding specifity
Eich
sensitivity of retrieval to congruence with the internal context at the time of learning is state-dependent sometimes.
system 1- intuitive, automatic
system 2- squential, conscious
dual-process theory
availability heuristic
Tversky annd Kahnmen
english words with the letter K as first letter….
representative bias
Kahneman & Tversky
lawyer or Tversky.
prototype effect
functional fixedness
duncker
participants had to find a way of supporting a candle, worked better w pins out the box
Conservation and confirmation bias in inductive reasoning
Wason 2 4 6
people seek confirmaiton rather than testing
WM capacity limits and heurisitcs in problem solving
Mean-end-analysis and dont repeat a move
trouble with IF-THEN
Wason 4 card problem
inferencing is automatic
Garnham tested ced verbatim recall for lists of sentences
Bransford- old sentences
automatically infer and remember what we said
strategies to understanding given local ambiguity
minimal commitment strategy
serial strategy
paralllel strategy
Semantic priming
meyer and schvaneveldt
bread as a lexical decision for butter
reduced relative clauses. processing local syntactic ambiguities.
syntactic parsing
Frazier and Rayner
construct many structues w different meanings at once or make lots
Dichotic split-span
Broadbent
Ps found it easier to recall thne one switch between ears as they only switched attention once
filter model of attention
Broadbent
sensory features of all speech sources are processed in parallel and stored briefly in sensory memory
access to conscious awareness
late selection theories of attention
Deutsch- attended and unattended words are processed
relevant meanings are picked out
filter-attenuation theory
Treisman
is an early filter but it is not all-or-none. filtering is optional
early selection an option not a bottleneck
Moray and Marks
numbers in right ear and someitmes letter in left
selection in vision
Simon and Chabris
gorilla
attentional spotlight
Posner et al
endogenous cueing. P responds as fast as possible to a stimuluss. advantage in cognitive processing
Feature-integration theory
bind features of the same object from different maps into an object description, we need focal attention to a location
study on relative risk of cell phone use
strayer et al
no sig difference between effects of talkin g on hand held and hands free
competition for a general purpose processor
broadbent
central processor
demanding tasks combined without inference
antonis and reynolds
music studnet.
difficulty did not influence
psychological refractory period
Welford
two choice reaction time tasks, stimulus onset separated by a variable, very short, interval.
PRP occurs even when the stimuli and responses for the two tasks are in different modalities
response selection is bottlenecked
pashler
wait until response selection is free
strategy application disorder
shallice and burgess
shopping
flanker effect
response triggered by application of instructed task set to irrelevant objects
activation of meaning by subliminal or unattended objects
Koulder
priming w peoples faces
priming to behaviour
Bargh et al
walking speed down corrider slower after priming w age related words
when does awareness of intention happen relative to initiation of action
Libet ERP paradigm
P raises finger when they feel like it
lateralised readiness potential- associated w selection of left v right response
Decision making and problem solving
choice blindness
nisbett adn wilson
switching out peoples chosen faces
unconscious thought advantage
Dijksterhuis
unconscious decision makign and reasoning may be superoir to conscious
P chose cars
halo effect
nisbettt and wilson
one good quality heightens others
wrong about feelings
Dutton and Aaron
adrenaline and attraction
FACS
ekman
more negative facial expressions linked to negative mood
Valence-asymmetry hypothesis
davidson
left sided prefrontal cortex- approach related positive goals
right sided- goals requiring inhibition
an example of dual process theory
Circumplex model
Russell
arousal v valience
positive link between activity in corrugator (frown) and mood
Kunecke
facial expressions shaped by social context
Fridlund
body responses that occur in response to emotive stimuli
James-Lange theory
Emotions occurred even if the brain disconnected from viscera
Cannon-Bard theory
against James-lange
stimulation of body doesnt lead to emotions
two factor theory of emotion
schachter and singer
gave ps info about adrenaline or a placebo. those who were informed had low euphoria and misinformed had high
neural circuit of emotion
Papez
sensory messages concerning emmotional stimuli that arrive at the thalamas are directed to both the cortex and hypothalamas
amygdala in emotion processing
LeDoux
high and low amygdala routes
orchid hypothesis
Caspi
If an s-allele carrier is raised positvley they will thrive but opposite if negative
Depressed people identifying emotion
Surguldaze
less sensitive to positive
lesions on the anterior insula lead to deficts in the experience of disgust
Calder
appraisal theories
lazarus
appraisals start the emotion process. can occur automatically. consist of different levels of appraisal
abnormal emotion regulation in depression
siegle
sustained amygdala response to negative words in depressed people
giving back is impaired by ventromedial frontal lobe lesions
iowa gambling
somatic marker hypothesis
Damasio
version of James-Lange theory
peripheral feedback is argued to be essential to decision making.
affective judgement comes to influence the decision is a somatic marker
attention bias in attention probe task
MacLeod
Ps are faster to respond to probes appearing in an already attended region
Modified APT
Grafton
Ps have to attend a cue in order to be able to respond accurately
weapon focus
loftus
Behavioural theory with behavioural inhibition system and behavioural activation system
Gray
BIS- predicts an individuals response to anxiety-relevant cues in a given environment
BAS- based on a model of appetitive motivation
What is reappraisal
Basically it is changing how you think about or perceive an emotional situation.
An emotion regulation strategy that involves changing the trajectory of an emotional response by reinterpreting the meaning of the emotional stimulus. It is seen as a proactive cognitive change strategy to regulate emotions in the ochsner and Gross model.
emotional generative process
gross & thompson
changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact
model of emotion regulatoin
ochsner and gross
the process model of emotion regulation pioneered by Gross (1998a) details five major points of focus during emotion regulation: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, & response modification
interaction-activation model
McClelland and Rmelhart
motivated by explaining word superiority effect
cued recall
Waugh and Norman
they showed the item before it on a list as a probe or cue
Explain the difference between dimensional and categorical models of emotion by reference to an example of each kind of model
Circumplex model- Russel (1980)
Categorical model- Ekman or Darwin
The circumplex model suggests emotions can occur across two dimensions; arousal and valence.
The categorical model has basic emotions.
brain activity associated with task set reconfiguration
- ERP cueing task where P saw a word made of blue or red letters and had to perform one of two tasks by pressing keys
- either class words semantically or decide whether the colours are distributed symmetrically over the letter string
- this is associated w the mental process of reconfigurating task set
imaging task set inertia with fMRI
-the idea of task set inertia is that the organisation of cognitive processes we call task set tend to persist until youve one another task at least once, so the first time you perform a changined task there is still competition from the persisting set for the other task.
THis experiment is by Yeung et al where the stimuli were composits of a face and a word, and the tasks were to classify the words or the face
Performance was slower and less accurate on the first trial run when the task changed and this switch correlated with the activation of ht ebrain region selective for the stimulus property being switched away from.
What happens to the brain to prioristise the processing of emotional stimuli
- early prefrontal cortex response measured by EEG to fearful v neutal faces.
- this suggests that the prefrontal cotrex is quickly activated by emotional stimuli
- this suggests a relationship to rapid activation of prefrontal areas involved in the detection of emotionally significant events.
- increased blood flow in the amygdala and visual cortex in response to visual emotional vs neutral stimuli
Why are emotional events remembered more vividly than neutral ones
Hamman (2007) states that there is enhanced memory for positive and negative sciences which is associated with amygdala activity during encoding
increased amygdala activity means the brain pays more attention to the picture when encoding. this creates a stronger memory
how do emotions bias decision ing?
Bechara and amasio’s Iowa gambling game
Bechara refers to hunches or gut feelings that bias decisios in the absense of awareness
Prototype and exemplar effect
Prototype theory- a new stim ulus is compared to a single prototype in a category. Thr closer it is to it, the easier it is to classify.
The exemplar theory sughgests that a new stimulus is compared to multiple known exemplars in a category.
Posner and Keele created artificial stimuli using dot patterns. supporting prototype, they found ps encountered only the newly created instances but never the actual prototype but were still faster identifying it.
found support for exemplar too
