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key science skills Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychology

A

the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour

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2
Q

Research Question

A

Psychological research begins with a topic of interest – something the researcher wants to find out about. This is phrased as a question.

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3
Q

Aim

A

a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation

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4
Q

Independent variable (IV)

A

the variable that is manipulated/changed by the researcher in order to measure its effects on the dependent variable

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5
Q

Dependent variable (DV)

A

the variable the researcher measured for any changes it may have experienced due to the effect of the IV

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6
Q

Research hypothesis

A

testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables (IV and DV)/ outcome of the investigation

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7
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

is any variable other than the IV that may cause an unwanted change in the DV and therefore affect the results.

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8
Q

Controlled variable

A

any variables held constant to ensure that the only influence on the dependent variable is the independent variable.

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9
Q

Confounding Variable

A

an unwanted variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV.

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10
Q

Controlled experiment

A

measures the cause-effect (causal) relationship between two or more variables (IV and DV), with all other variables controlled.

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11
Q

Between-subjects

A

Each participant in the sample is randomly allocated to either the control or experimental condition

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12
Q

With-in subjects

A

Each participant in the sample is involved in both the experimental and control conditions.

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13
Q

Mixed subjects

A

may involve two independent variables, whereby one variable is tested through a between subjects design and the second variable is tested through a within subjects design.

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14
Q

Case study

A

a detailed, in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behaviour, event, or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation

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15
Q

Correlational study

A

type of researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them non-experimental study in which.

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16
Q

Classification and Identification

A

Classification: the arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets

Identification: a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set

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17
Q

Fieldwork

A

any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory.

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18
Q

Literature review

A

the process of collating and analyzing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data

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19
Q

Modelling

A

the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system.

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20
Q

Simulation

A

a process of using a model to study the behavior of a real or theoretical system and can take various formats (such as simulated environments).

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21
Q

Product, process or system development

A

the design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures

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22
Q

Random Sampling

A

A systematic procedure that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample being used in the study.

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23
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

Breaking the population into ‘strata’ or groups based on specific characteristics and then randomly selecting participants from each strata in the same proportions as they appear in the population

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24
Q

Population

A

to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.

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25
Q

Sample

A

a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a larger group of research interest

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26
Q

Experimental group

A

participants are exposed to the independent variable. (eg, new drug)

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27
Q

Control group

A

participants are not exposed to the independent variable (eg, no drug or placebo)

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28
Q

Random allocation

A

participants in the sample are given equal chance of being in either the control or experimental groups.

29
Q

Non-random allocation

A

participants in the sample are not given an equal chance to be allocated to the control or the experimental group

30
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

any variable other than the IV that may cause an unwanted change in the DV and therefore affect the results.

31
Q

Controlled variable

A

any variables held constant to ensure that the only influence on the dependent variable is the independent variable.

32
Q

Confounding Variable

A

an unwanted variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV.

33
Q

Individual participant differences:

A

Characteristics that can vary naturally between participants in a study and may have an unwanted effect on the results.

Can control by:
- Ensure participants are as similar as possible in terms of the characteristics relevant to the study
- Using within-subjects design (do both conditions)
- Random allocation
- Random and stratified sampling

34
Q

Non-standardised instructions and procedures

A

Inconsistency in research procedures and instructions, often when a test is given to a number of participants at different times and in different locations (and with a number of different experimenters)

Can become a controlled variable by:
- Use standardised instructions: the directions and explanations given to all participants in each condition are predetermined and identical in terms of what they state and how they are administered
- Use standardised procedures: the techniques used for making observations and measuring and recording responses should be identical for all individual participants.

35
Q

Order effects

A

A variable that has an unwanted effect on the DV due to the sequence (order) in which the conditions were completed
- Present in a within subjects design, resulting in improved or impaired performance (due to practice, boredom, fatigue) on the second condition can occur
- Practise effect: Knowledge or experience in a task, increasing performance on subsequent tasks.
- Boredom effect/ fatigue: Decreasing performance in subsequent tasks.

Can become a controlled variable by:
- Counterbalancing: Half of the participants are exposed to the control condition (B) and then the experimental condition (A) , while the other half of participants are exposed to the experimental condition (A) and then the control condition (B)
- Increase the time period between the two conditions.
- Use a between-subjects design

36
Q

Experimenter effect

A

When the experimenter unintentionally influences the behaviour of the participants or unintentionally collects and treats data in a biased way (i.e, to support his hypothesis).

Can become a controlled variable by:
- Use a double-blind procedure: the participants and experimenters (or research assistant) do not know who has been assigned to the experimental and control conditions. (i.e, the person working directly with participants is blind to who is in the control and the experimental group). There must be a third party involved in assigning participants into groups.

37
Q

Qualitative data

A

Data that describes changes in the quality of behaviour and is often expressed in words.

  • Strengths: More detail provided that quantitative data as it gives insight into person’s opinions, beliefs and experiences (participants can elaborate on responses)
  • Limitation: Difficult to statistically analyse and compare with other data, open to personal, observer or researcher biases
38
Q

Quantitative data

A

Data that is numerical and collected via systematic and controlled procedures.

  • Strength: Quick and easy to statistically analyse (and can be easily compared with other data)
  • Limitation: Participants are not able to elaborate on their behaviour/responses so there is less detail
39
Q

Primary data

A

data collected directly by the researcher (or through others) for their own purpose, usually to test a hypothesis (first- hand experience)
E.g You will also be collecting primary data if you interview people as part of a survey.

  • Strength: Offers tailored information sought by the researcher to test a hypothesis on a topic of their choosing
  • Limitation: It can be time-consuming to collect and process primary data
40
Q

Secondary data

A

Data that has been collected by someone other than the original person for their own purpose (ie., second hand)
E.g The ABS is a widely used source of secondary data or completing a literature review

  • Strengths: It tends to be readily available and can usually be accessed in less time, compared to primary data.
  • Limitation: Can be uncertainty about its quality because it was collected for another purpose.
41
Q

Objective data

A

Data that is collected through direct observation or measurement and should obtain the same results regardless of who is conducting the measurement.
E.g a person’s weight in kilograms or their numerical scores on an intelligence test.

  • Strength: It does not rely on experimenter interpretation, and so there is more chance that the data is valid.
  • Limitation: Does not allow the researchers to understand the perspectives of the participants, which might provide more insight into the research area they are trying to understand.
42
Q

Subjective data

A

Data that concerns the individual or personal experience of participants which is informed by personal opinion, perception or interpretation.
Eg. Collecting data through a participant’s self-report on a questionnaire about their experience of an event.

  • Strength: Allows for experimenters to better understand the perspective of participants, It provides researchers with an insight into unobservable phenomena (eg, beliefs, feelings, consciousness)
  • Limitation: May have low validity and low reproducibility and replicability, Response bias: Participants may respond with what they think experimenters want to hear, rather than what they truly believe.
43
Q

Outliers

A

values that differ significantly from other values in a data set

44
Q

Range

A

A measure of variability that is a value obtained by finding the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

45
Q

Standard deviation

A

a measure of variability that measures the spread of scores (variability) around the mean.
- When we talk about standard deviation, we are talking about variability- in other words, how ‘spread out’ the scores are according to the mean.

  • Low standard deviation - scores are clustered around the mean and hence there is low variability in a set of scores.
  • High standard deviation - scores are spread out from the mean and hence there is high variability in a set of scores.
46
Q

True value

A

the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly (found in numerical data)

47
Q

Accuracy

A

how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

48
Q

Precision

A

how close a set of measurement values are to each other

49
Q

Reliability

A

the consistency of results when replicated.

50
Q

Repeatability

A

the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions within a short period of time.

51
Q

Reproducibility

A

the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions

52
Q

Validity

A

how well a scientific investigation and its measurements provide meaningful and generalizable information about the psychological constructs of interest

53
Q

Internal validity

A

the extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to.

54
Q

External validity

A

the extent to which the results of a study can be applied to similar individuals in different settings

55
Q

Personal errors

A

mistakes, miscalculations and observer errors made when conducting research.

56
Q

Measurement error

A

the difference between the measured value and the true value of what is being measured and should be considered when evaluating the quality of research

57
Q

Systematic errors

A

data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount, hence affecting the accuracy of the measurement.

58
Q

Random errors

A

errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance, hence affecting the precision of a measurement by creating unpredictable variations/ spread of reading in the measurement process

59
Q

Beneficence

A

commitment to maximising benefits and reducing risks and harms.

  • whether the research design minimises harm.
  • where harm is a necessary part of the research, it is outweighed by the merits (benefits) of the study.
  • participants’ welfare.
60
Q

Integrity

A

commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and reporting all sources of information and results honestly.

  • objective and open reporting and recording of results.
  • processes of peer review.
  • thoroughness of any literature review and other research procedures
61
Q

Justice

A

moral obligation to ensure fair consideration of competing claims.

  • objectivity in evaluating results.
  • ensuring the research design and suggestions on the basis of conclusions are not discriminatory against certain groups.
  • ensuring psychological practice does not stereotype or discriminate.
  • equity in access to psychological services and findings.
62
Q

Non-maleficence

A

do no harm.

  • designing research to minimize psychological and physical harm.
  • participants’ welfare.
  • cost-benefit analyses of whether benefits outweigh the risks.
63
Q

Respect

A

consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic/instrumental value, consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions

  • respect for and consideration of the welfare of human and non-human research participants.
  • protection of participants’ autonomy.
  • respect for individuals’ personal beliefs and cultures.
64
Q

Confidentiality

A

the protection, privacy, and security of participants’ personal information

65
Q

Informed consent

A

ensure participants understand the nature and purpose and risks of the experiment before agreeing to participate in the study

66
Q

Voluntary participation

A

ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved

67
Q

Withdrawal rights

A

the right of participants to discontinue their involvement in the study, even afterwards without penalty.

68
Q

Deception

A

intentionally misleading participants when knowledge about the experiment will affect their behaviours.

69
Q

Debriefing

A

ensures participants leave with an understanding of elements of the study.

Psych (8 decks)

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