Kaplan Ch. 4 Cognition, Consciousness, Language Flashcards
What effect does cocaine have on the brain?
Decreased reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Define Insomnia and state other physical/psychological disorders it is related to.
Difficulty falling asleep / staying asleepRelated to anxiety, depression, medications, disrupted sleep cycles
How does light help control the sleep/wake cycle?
In the case of decreased light: retina senses decrease in light, retina sends signal to hypothalamus, hypothalamus sends signal to pineal gland to release melatonin to cause sleepinessIn the case of increased light: retina senses increase in light, retina sends signal to hypothalamus, hypothalamus releases CRF which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH which enters the blood stream and stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol into the blood which produces wakefulness
REM sleep (definition)
Rapid - eye movement sleep = interspersed between cycles of NREM
Beta waves:(1) What are their frequency?(2) When do they occur?(3) Why do they occur?
1) highest frequency of all brain waves2) occur when person is alert or doing mental task that requires concentration3) Occur b/c neurons are firing randomly
What features of language acquisition do children display at each of these key timepoints in development:
1) 9 to 12 months of age
2) 12 to 18 months of age
3) 18 to 20 months of age
4) 2 to 3 years
5) 5+ years
1) Babbling
2) Add 1 word per month
3) Explosion of language, use differing inflection and gestures, combine words
4) Sentences with 3+ words, make many grammatical errors
5) Language mostly mastered by this point
What happens physiologically during REM sleep?
Arousal levels reach that of waking, but muscles are paralyzed
What brain wave patterns characterize Stage 2 of sleep?
Theta waves + sleep spindles + k complexes
Morpheme
Building blocks of wordsEx: redesign ( - re indicates do again, - design is the verb root, - ed indicates action in the past)
What is REM rebound?
After period of sleep deprivation, if one is permitted to sleep normally, an earlier onset of REM sleep and greater duration may be observed
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences
Lev Vygotsky
Educational psychologist who proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his/her culture
Wernicke’s area
Located in superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension
Stanford-Benet IQ test score calculation
IQ = (mental age / chronological age) * 100
What are the two ways intelligence is sub divided?
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Wernicke - Korsakoff Syndrome
Brain disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, impaired mental status + loss of motor skills
What two things does confirmation bias lead to? (hint: these are both things that Donald Trump has displayed consistently…)
1) overconfidence: tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible2) belief perseverance: inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Disconfirmation principle
Evidence obtained from testing demonstrates that the solution does not work
Boca’s aphasia
Damage to Boca’s area leads to reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language
Define consciousness and list the 4 states of consciousness.
Definition: one’s level of awarenessAlertness, sleep, dreaming, altered states
NREM sleep
Non-rapid eye movement = stages 1-4 of sleep cycle
Categorical perception
Ability to make distinction between sounds that communicate speech and sounds that do not
What effect do benzodiazepines have on the brain?
Increase GABA activity, same general effect otherwise as alcohol (sense of relaxation)
What effect do opioids have on the brain?
Bind to opioid receptors and cause decreased reaction to pain and sense of euphoria
What physiological effect does cocaine have?
Anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas, when used recreationally may lead to heart attack / stroke
Divided attention
Ability to perform multiple tasks at same time
Explain the cognitive process dream theory
Dreams are a sleeping version of stream of consciousness
What is a decline in intelligence w/ aging linked to?
How long an older adult retains the ability to function in activities of daily living
Cognition
Study of how our brains process and react to information presented to us by the world
What brain wave patterns characterize stage 3 and 4 of sleep?
Delta waves = Slow wave sleep (SWS)
Nativist Theory
1) Who is the linguist that proposed this theory?
2) What is a language acquisition device (LAD)?
3) What is a sensitive period? When is this period for language development?
1) Noam Chomsky
2) The ability to acquire language is innate due to a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
3) A time when the engironmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability, for language, this is before puberty
Morphology
Structure of words
What is the social interactionist theory of language development?
Language is acquired because the child wants to communicate and be socially interactive. As the child is exposed to language, they group sounds and meanings together and keep those that are used in communication and lose those that aren’t
Learning Theory
1) Who proposed this theory of language acquisition?
2) How is this related to operant conditioning?
1) B.F. Skinner
2) Babies show preference for phonemes (sounds) in language spoken by their parents, so as parents repeat (reinforce) the sounds of their language the infant perceives these sounds as having more value than those that are less reinforced (heard less often)
What effect does alcohol have on the brain?
Increases activity of GABA (chloride channel), which results in hyperpolarization of membranes, which has inhibitory effect on brain leading to diminished arousal
What did Jean Piaget propose?
That there are qualitative differences between the way children and adults think
Alpha waves:(1) When do they occur?(2) What are their frequency?
(1) Occur wen we are awake but resting w/ eyes closed(2) Slower and more synchronized than beta waves
What brain wave patterns characterize Stage 1 of sleep?
Theta waves = irregular waveforms w/ slower frequencies and higher voltages
Cognitive Development
Development of one’s ability to think and solve problems
What effect do amphetamines have on the brain?
Increase release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at synapse and simultaneously decrease reuptake
When do most sleep disorders occur?
During NREM sleep
What physiological effect do amphetamines have?
Increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, prolonged use may lead to stroke / brain damage
Circadian rhythm
Approximate 24 hour cycle that is somewhat affected by external cues such as light
What is a dyssomnia? What disorders are included in this category?
Sleep disorder that makes it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep(includes insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea)
Boca’s area
Located in inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s proposed cognitive development model?
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
Algorithm
Formula or procedure for solving certain type of problem
What is fluid intelligence? When does it peak? When does it decline?
Problem solving skillsPeaks in early adulthoodDeclines with age
What psychological effect do amphetamines have?
Cause increased arousal, decreased appetite and decreased need for sleep, sense of euphoria, anxiety, paranoia
Define sleep apnea and explain the two possible underlying causes of the disorder.
Sleep apnea = Inability to breathe during sleepObstructive SA = physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflowCentral SA = brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge
What are stimulants? What are 3 common examples?
Increase arousal in nervous systemEx: amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy (MDMA)
What pathway in the brain is drug addiction related to?
Mesolimbic reward pathway
Arcuate Fasciculus
Bundle of axons that allows association between Boca’s area and Wernicke’s area
Inductive reasoning
AKA bottom up reasoningSeeks to create a theory via generalizations
By what 2 means did Piaget theorize that new information is processed and incorporated into these schemata?
1) Assimilation = process of classifying new information into existing schemata
2) Accommodation = existing schemata are modified to fit new information as needed
Conduction Aphasia
If arcuate fasciculus is damaged, speech production and comprehension will be intact but patient will be unable to repeat information due to loss of connection
What are depressants? What are 3 common examples?
Depressants = reduce nervous system activity, result in sense of relaxation and reduced anxietyExamples: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
What are schemata (part of Piaget’s cognitive development theory)?
Organized patterns of thought / behavior that provide a means of learning via instinctual interaction with the environment
Can include concept, behavior, or a sequence of events
Long term consequences of alcoholism
Liver cirrhosis (scaring) and failure, damage to pancreas, gastric ulcers, GI cancer, brain disorders
Linguist Relativity Hypothesis (aka Whorfian hypothesis)
Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
What is the relationship of these schemata to development?
As a child moves through the various stages of development, new information is placed into these schemata
Explain the problem-solving dream theory.
Dreams are a way to solve problems b/c they allow interpretation of obstacles in a way that is not bound by the rules of the physical world
What is parasomnia? What disorders are included in this category?
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep(include sleep walking and night terrors)
Trial and Error
Various solutions tried until 1 is found to work
Wernicke’s aphasia
Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to loss of speech comprehension, patient’s make nonsensical sounds or wrong word combinations, but often believe they are speaking perfectly well
Phonology
Sound of language
Sleep cycle
Single complete progression through sleep stages
Factors that affect intelligence (5)
GenesEnvironmentEducational ExperiencesSocioeconomic StatusNutrition
What effect does alcohol have on behavior?
Behavior = less inhibited b/c centers of brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed
Phoneme
Speech sounds in a language
Which brain waves characterize the alert state?
Beta and alpha
What happens psychologically during REM sleep?
Dreaming is most likely to occur, associated w/ implicit / procedural memory consolidation
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to focus on information tat fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them, may prevent an individual to confirm the existence of Disconfirmation principle
What is a heuristic?
A simplified principle used to make decisions, colloquially called rules of thumb.
Selective attention
Focus on one part of environment while ignoring others, means of filtering sensory stimuli, NOT an all or nothing system
Stage 3 and 4 of sleep:(1) What is a delta wave?(2) What becomes more difficult in these stage?(3) What is this sleep stage associated wrt brain function?
1) low frequency, high voltage sleep waves2) Rousing a sleeping person3) Cognitive recovery, explicit / conscious memory consolidation, increased growth hormone release
Physiological effects of Ecstasy?
Increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia
Alcohol myopia
Inability to recognize consequences of actions (short sighted view of world as result of consumption)
What is crystallized intelligence? When does it peak? When does it decline?
Use of learned skills and knowledgePeaks in middle adulthoodDeclines with age
Deductive reasoning
AKA top-down reasoningStarts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
Define Narcolepsy and describe its symptoms.
Lack of voluntary control over onset of sleepSymptoms: - Cataplexy = loss of muscle control and intrusion of REM sleep usually caused by emotional trigger- Sleep paralysis = sensation of being unable to move despite being awake- Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations = hallucinations when going to sleep (gogic) or waking (pompic)
ALERTNESS1) Definition2) Experience physiological level of _______?3) State is maintained by what part of the brain?4) What 2 parts of the brain communicate to sustain alertness?5) What does an injury/ disruption in this communication result in?
1) State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think2) Arousal - cortisol levels are elevated3) Prefrontal cortex4) Fibers from prefrontal cortex communicate w/ reticular formation (in brainstem) to keep cortex awake and alert5) Coma
Explain the activation - synthesis theory of why dreams occur.
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry, which may mimic incoming sensory information, stored memories, desires, needs, etc. A dream is the cortex attempting to stitch tense random bits of brain activity together.
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences - what are the 7 types of intelligence he described?
LinguisticLogical - mathematicalMusicalVisual - spatialBodily - kinestheticInterpersonalIntrapersonal
What is a representative heuristic?
Categorizes items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical/stereotypical/representative image of the category
When does sleepwalking most often occur?
During SWS (stages 3 and 4 of sleep cycle)
4 common types of problem solving approaches
Trial and ErrorAlgorithmsDeductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
Who get night terrors most often?What are night terrors?When do they occur during sleep cycle?What is a common symptom of night terrors?
Most common in childrenPeriods of intensive anxietyOccur during SWSSympathetic overdrive (increased breathing / heart rate, etc.)
With regards to problem solving, what is a mental set?
The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Semantics
Association of meaning with a word
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
What factors are considered protective against intellectual decline? (4)
Higher educational levelFrequency performance of intellectual activitiesSocializationStimulating environment
