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Be it, feel it > Item 8 > Flashcards

Item 8 Flashcards

1
Q

REad page 238 (pupillary light reflex), 304-19, 326-334, 336-37

A

ok

27

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2
Q

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the dual _, and maintenance of homeostasis for smooth muscle

A

innervation

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3
Q

T or F: nearly all organs are impacted by the ANS

A

true

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4
Q

ANS are fast/slow

A

fast, to minimize homeostatic errors

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5
Q

The _ and _ activities are the dual innervation systems (impacting most organs, regulating them to maintain homeostasis) which oppose each other

A

parasympathetic;
sympathetic

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6
Q

Two types of neurons from cns TO EFFECTOR ORGANS: _ganglionic and _ganglionic

A

pre;
post

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7
Q

_ ganglia communicate from pre- to post-ganglionic neurons

A

autonomic (cardiac, gland, smooth, even adipose tissue)

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8
Q

The _ganglionic neurons are in the CNS, either the brain stem or spinal cord

A

pre-

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9
Q

Two neurotransmitters of the ANS is _ and norepinephrine (although the most common is the first)

A

acetylcholine

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10
Q

The signal transduction mechanisms for the different classes of adrenergic receptors are all - receptors that either activate or innervate second messenger systems

A

G-protein

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11
Q

The NTs used by the preganglionic neurons for the para- and sympathetic systems are ACETYLCHOLINE/NOREPINEPHRINE as well as for the parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. However, the sympathetic postganglionic neurons use ACETYLCHOLINE/NOREPINEPHRINE

A

acetylcholine;
norepinephrine

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12
Q

The para- and sympathetic nervous systems innervate and are opposing forces on _ _

A

effector organs

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13
Q

The sympathetic nervous system uses ADRENERGIC/CHOLINERGIC preganglionic neurons with MUSCARINIC/NICOTINIC cholinergic receptors, and then ADRENERGIC/CHOLINERGIC postganglionic neurons with adrenergic receptors that innervate effector organs

A

cholinergic;
nicotinic;
adrenergic

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14
Q

The PARAsympathetic nervous system uses ADRENERGIC/CHOLINERGIC preganglionic neurons with MUSCARINIC/NICOTINIC cholinergic receptors, and then ADRENERGIC/CHOLINERGIC postganglionic neurons with MUSCARINIC/NICOTINIC cholinergic receptors that innervate effector organs

A

cholinergic;
nicotinic;
cholinergic;
muscarinic

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15
Q

Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic, causing cation channels to _, resulting in _polarization

A

open;
depolarization

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16
Q

_ cholinergic receptors are metabotropic, G-protein-coupled, with effect depending on the effector organ

A

Muscarinic

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17
Q

It is the NEUROTRANSMITTER/RECEPTOR that determines the effect, and not the NEUROTRANSMITTER/RECEPTOR, such as the case of muscarinic cholinergic receptors’ effect depending on the effector organ’s NEUROTRANSMITTERS/RECEPTORS

A

receptor;
neurotransmitter;
receptors

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18
Q

In the _ nervous system, the preganglionic cholinergic neuron releases acetylcholine to the nicotinic cholinergic receptor of the postganglionic adrenergic neuron, which then releases _ to an adrenergic receptor of an effector organ

A

norepinephrine

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19
Q

Adrenaline is he same as _

A

epinephrine

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20
Q

Nearly all organs are innervated by the _ system/s

A

para- and sympathetic NS

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21
Q

In the _ NS, preganglionic neurons are located in the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord

A

sympathetic

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22
Q

The autonomic ganglia of the _ NS are linked together in the _ chain

A

sympathetic;
sympathetic

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23
Q

The sympathetic chain is located close to the spinal cord, meaning the _ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic NS have a relatively short axon, as compared to the long _ganglionic axons of the parasympathetic NS neurons

A

pre;
pre

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24
Q

Most preganglionic neurons originate from the brain stem in the _ NS, and the sacral portion of the spinal cord (i.e., there isn’t a ‘chain’ near the spinal cord)

A

parasympathetic

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25
Q

We have a _ axon for the preganglionic neuron of the PNS and _ axons for the postganglionic neuron (which synapse in autonomic neuron)

A

long;
short (they’re close to the effector organ)

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26
Q

Neuroeffector junctions are between the postganglionic neuron and the _

A

effector organ

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27
Q

Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored in axon swellings of _ and are released in response to action potentials in postganglionic neurons

A

varicosities

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28
Q

The mechanism for neurotransmitter release is similar to an ordinary axon terminal apart for the diffusion of…

A

neurotransitters from the varicosities over a greater area

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29
Q

With an action potential, the polarizing quotient will open Ca2+ gated channels, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitters, which bind to a muscarinic cholinergic receptor (if accepting acetylcholine as part of the _ NS), which the effector organ responds and the NTs are degraded, diffused away or taken up

A

parasympathetic

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30
Q

Events at the _ junction:
1. action potential arrives at varicosity

A

neuroeffector

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31
Q

Events at the neuroeffector junction:
1. action potential arrives at varicosity
2. voltage-gated _channels open

A

Ca2+

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32
Q

Events at the neuroeffector junction:
1. action potential arrives at varicosity
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Ca2+ triggers _ of NT

A

exocytosis

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33
Q

Events at the neuroeffector junction:
1. action potential arrives at varicosity
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of NT
4. NT binds with receptors on _ _

A

effector organ

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34
Q

Events at the neuroeffector junction:
1. action potential arrives at varicosity
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of NT
4. NT binds with receptors on effector organ
5. Response in effector organ occurs
6. NT is degraded and diffuses away, or _ occurs

A

reuptake

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35
Q

With an action potential, the polarizing quotient will open Ca2+ gated channels, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitters, which bind to a nicotinic adrenergic receptor (if accepting norepinephrine as part of the _ NS), which the effector organ responds and the NTs are degraded, diffused away or taken up

A

sympathetic

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36
Q

_ activity is found with:
quiet, relaxed states
active in “rest and digest”
increases gastrointestinal activities
decrease in blood pressure and heart rate

A

parasympathetic

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37
Q

Sympathetic activity is assoc with:
fight-or-flight response
prepares for emergency, stress and exercise
increases heart rate and blood pressure
mobilizes energy stores
_ _
decreases gastrointestinal and urinary functions
releases epinephrine/adrenaline

A

dilates pupils

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38
Q

Release of _ in the sympathetic NS is from the adrenal medulla

A

epinephrine/adrenaline

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39
Q

What is monoamine oxidase inhibitors?

A

a powerful antidepressant, increasing the amount of norepinephrine by decreasing their degradation at CNS synapses of sympathetic NS

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40
Q

Why aren’t monoamine oxidase inhibitors commonly prescribed?

A

it also acts in the peripheral NS, with levels at areas of the autonomic NS may also be increased, such as blood pressure, kidney dilation, decreasing gastrointestinal functions and constipation

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41
Q

Sympathetic and parasympathetic NS are opposing in their innervation, although the _ NS dominates, resulting in decreased heart rate, blood pressure, etc.

A

parasympathetic

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42
Q

upset stomach, blushing, sweating is suggestive of the _ NS dominating

A

sympathetic

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43
Q

It is often the … of autonomic system innervation that cause dominating NS problems, whether an overactive bladder or an upset stomach

A

mishap between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

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44
Q

The ANS _ is liked to the sensory system to produce functional reflexes

A

autonomic efferent

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45
Q

Autonomic reflexes are good examples of _ feedback loop. E.g., is having to go to the bathroom but not being able to go because of impact of the sympathetic nervous system (called shy bladder). Its overall goal is…

A

negative;
to maintain homeostasis

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46
Q

Pupillary light reflex uses OFF/ON and OFF/ON afferents to luminance and darkness detectors, respectively

A

on;
off

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47
Q

If a pupillary light reflex show something is too BRIGHT/DARK, parasympathetic reflex to ciliary ganglion and circular iris muscles, causing pupil CONSTRICTION/DILATION

A

bright;
constriction

“on” afferent

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48
Q

If a pupillary light reflex shows something is too BRIGHT/DARK, sympathetic reflex to radial muscles causing pupil CONSTRICTION/DILATION

A

dark;
dilation

“off” afferent

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49
Q

Orthostatic hypotension is postural hypotension, i.e., a ‘head rush’, a form of hypotension in which a person’s blood pressure suddenly falls when standing up or stretching. This normally doesn’t happen due to the _, allowing us to adjust blood pressure depending on posture

A

baroreflex

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50
Q

The _ _ found in the ventrolateral medulla is the center of the baroreflex mechanism

A

cardiovascular center

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51
Q

The muscle PARA-/SYMPATHETIC effects are of the baroreflex system

A

sympathetic

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52
Q

The baroreflex’ major influence is noradrenergic vaso-CONSTRICTION/DILATION to maintain blood pressure

A

constriction

53
Q

The baroreflex’ muscle sympathetic effects are extremely important for regulation of _ _

A

blood pressure

54
Q

The baroreflex system works most of the time, but when you go in a fighter jet, a G-suit puts pressure on your limbs so that…

A

your chest cavity retains blood in its normal position, preventing you from passing out

55
Q

Areas of the brain that regulate autonomic function are the:
hypothalamus
pons
_ _

A

medulla oblongata

56
Q

Can the autonomic NS be regulated by the CNS?

A

YES

57
Q

If you activate the _ nervous system, is causing an increase in heart rate, conduction velocity and dilation of pupils, etc.

A

sympathetic

58
Q

If you activate the _ nervous system, it can cause sweating, contraction of the bladder wall and relaxation of the anal sphincter

A

parasympathetic

59
Q

A PARA-/SYMPATH-ectomy of the first cervical neurons of the sweat glands in the hands would block the transmission of PARA-SYMPATHETIC impact to the hands, done on individuals with hyperhydrosis (sweating of the palms of the hands)

A

sympathectomy;
sympathetic

60
Q

There are 1/2 set of neurons in the somatic nervous system

A

1 - just the motor neurons going to the effector organ skeletal muscle

61
Q

_ neurons control muscles, which synapse in the muscle fiber

A

motor

62
Q

The … is the synapse where motor neuron axons and muscle fibers meet

A

neuromuscular junction

63
Q

The axon terminal of the neuromuscular junction is the _ _

A

terminal bouton (terminal button)

64
Q

All motor neurons release ACETYLCHOLINE/EPINEPHRINE

A

acetylcholine (cholinergic)

65
Q

All synapses in the neuromuscular junction are EXCITATORY/INHIBITORY

A

excitatory

66
Q

The terminal bouton meets the _ _ _ at the neuromuscular junction

A

motor end plate

67
Q

Activation of motor neuron depends on summation of _s/_s, which occur at the axon hillock

A

EPSPs/IPSPs

this is not contradictory to all motor neurons being cholinergic; it’s merely what starts it from happening then if it does create an action potential then it has to be excitatory

68
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the _ _

A

terminal bouton

69
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated _ channels open

A

Ca2+

70
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Calcium enters cell triggering release of _

A

Ach; aceylcholine

71
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Calcium enters cell triggering release of ACh
4. ACh diffuses across cleft and binds to _ receptors on motor end plate/muscle fibre (the receiving end of the muscle fibre)

A

nicotinic

72
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Calcium enters cell triggering release of ACh
4. ACh diffuses across cleft and binds to nicotinic receptors on motor end plate/muscle fibre (the receiving end of the muscle fibre)
5. ACh triggers opening of channels for small cations of _ and _

A

sodium and potassium

73
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Calcium enters cell triggering release of ACh
4. ACh diffuses across cleft and binds to nicotinic receptors on motor end plate/muscle fibre (the receiving end of the muscle fibre)
5. ACh triggers opening of channels for small cations of Na+ and K+
6. Net movement causes a NEGATIVE/POSITIVE change, triggering a _polarization

A

positive;
depolarization

74
Q

Communication at the neuromuscular junction
1. action potential arrives at the terminal bouton
2. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Calcium enters cell triggering release of ACh
4. ACh diffuses across cleft and binds to nicotinic receptors (containing acetylcholinesterase for potential clean-up) on motor end plate/muscle fibre (the receiving end of the muscle fibre)
5. ACh triggers opening of channels for small cations of Na+ and K+
6. Net movement causes a positive change, triggering a depolarization
7. Causes action potential in muscle cell
8. _ _ spreads through muscle causing contraction

A

action potential

75
Q

The mechanism of force generation in muscle is the _ cycle

A

crossbridge, much like using an oar to row a boat

76
Q

The two contractile proteins for the crossbridge cycle are _ and _

A

actin and myosin

77
Q

_ makes up the general structure of the thin filament, a long filamentous polymer composed of several _ [same] molecules

A

actin

78
Q

ACTIN/MYOSIN makes up the thick filament and contains numerous crossbridges, the elements responsible for attaching to ACTIN/MYOSIN

A

myosin;
actin

79
Q

The ACTIN/MYOSIN head undergoes conformational changes swiveling back-and-forth

A

myosin

it is the oar of a canoe, with the actin which is like the water

80
Q

In myosin’s high-energy form, it has a HIGH/LOW affinity for actin, whereas the low-energy form has a HIGH/LOW affinity for actin

A

high;
low

it’s the same - high energy means it’s going to touch it

81
Q

Filaments run PARALLEL/PERPENDICULAR to the long axis

A

parallel

82
Q

Thick filaments are made of myosin molecular, which is composed of _ molecules bound at their tail ends

A

two

83
Q

The _ binding site an the nucleotide binding site of ATP are on the two heads, with ATPase that uses the energy

A

actin

84
Q

Thin filament is made up of polymerase of _ molecules wound together, with mosin-binding sites. They are only binded when they get _

A

calcium, which starts the contraction process (binds the myosin head and actin for contraction)

85
Q

During a power stroke…
1. the myosin head moves propelling _ filament towards the centre of the muscle (like movement of an oar propelling a boat)

A

thin (contains the actin)

86
Q

During a power stroke…
1. the myosin head moves propelling thin filament towards the centre of the muscle (like movement of an oar propelling a boat)
2. …filaments detach (oar breaks contact with water)

A

thick and thin

87
Q

During a power stroke…
1. the myosin head moves propelling thin filament towards the centre of the muscle (like movement of an oar propelling a boat)
2. thick and thin filaments detach (oar breaks contact with water)
3. _ _ returns to initial position (oar moved to new position, cycle starts again)

A

myosin head

88
Q

Crossbridge cycle involves:
1. binding of myosin to actin, with _ release

A

inorganic phosphate (Pi) released

imagine the myosin head is cocked, with Pi and ADP connected on the myosin head, but nothing is happening, until Pi’s release)

89
Q

Crossbridge cycle involves:
1. binding of myosin to actin, with Pi release
2. _ _

A

power stroke

(imagine ADP is still connected to the myosin head, while actin propels thin filament towards the centre of the muscle)

90
Q

Crossbridge cycle involves:
1. binding of myosin to actin, with Pi release
2. power stroke
3. rigor (myosin in _-energy form) - actin gets pulled towards middle of sarcomere, and ADP is released

A

low

energy isn’t released for the oar going into the water, rather what needs the energy is breaking the oar from the water and pulling it out

(ADP is released from the myosin head, but nothing has happened yet)

91
Q

Crossbridge cycle involves:
1. binding of myosin to actin, with Pi release
2. power stroke
3. rigor (myosin in _-energy form) - actin gets pulled towards middle of sarcomere, and ADP is release
4. unbinding of myosin and actin - new ATP binds to myosin head, and then once contraction occurs myosin and _ are released

A

ATP (energy is used at the myosin head site, with movement having taken place, and then myosin head is released)

92
Q

Crossbridge cycle involves:
1. binding of myosin to actin, with Pi release
2. power stroke
3. rigor (myosin in _-energy form) - actin gets pulled towards middle of sarcomere, and ADP is release
4. unbinding of myosin and actin - new ATP binds to myosin head, and then once contraction occurs myosin and ATP are released
5. _ is hydrolyzed, and cocking of the myosin head occurs (myosin being in _-energy form)

A

ATP;
high-energy

(myosin head and muscle fibre are separated and regrouping, with ‘cocking’ referring to the myosin having moved flush/parallel to the thick filament (the rest of the time the myosin head is perpendicular to it!)

93
Q

_ _ involves a body’s muscles becoming fully contracted once one dies, no longer generating any more energy. If it was energized, the muscles would release, but it remains stiff and the crossbridge is still detached…only changes when body breaks down in death

A

rigor mortis

94
Q

- coupling involves an action potential in the sarcolemma which causes contraction

A

excitation-contraction

95
Q

Excitation-contraction coupling is dependent on neural input from a motor neuron and requires _ release

A

calcium

96
Q

Termination of contraction involves _ leaving the binding sites, or a _ ATPase

A

calcium (both!)

97
Q

Ca2+ ATPase actively transports calcium into the _ _ from the cytosol, using calcium pumps for later use, terminating a contraction

A

sarcoplasmic reticulum

98
Q

_ contraction is ANY contraction produced in a muscle fibre in response to a single action potential

A

twitch

99
Q

Twitches are considered … events for a given muscle fibre at rest because they produce a response to an action potential

A

all-or-nothing

100
Q

T or F: twitch can be defined for a a muscle fibre

A

false - a muscle fibre or the whole muscle level

101
Q

There are three phases of a muscle twitch:
1. _
2. contraction
3. relaxation

A

latent

102
Q

The latent period of a muscle twitch follows a stimulus from the _ _, but no contractile force has developed.

A

motor neuron

103
Q

The latent period of a muscle twitch follows a stimulus from the motor neuron, but no contractile force has developed. … is occurring, with action potentials travelling down the muscle (through the T-tubules)

A

Excitation-coupling

104
Q

The latent period of a muscle twitch follows a stimulus from the motor neuron, but no contractile force has developed. Excitation-coupling is occurring, with action potentials travelling down the muscle (through the T-tubules), and the calcium is being released by the _ _ to initiate the cross-bridge cycle

A

sarcoplasmic reticulum

105
Q

Does contraction occur during the latent period of a muscle twitch?

A

no, during the contraction phase

106
Q

The contraction phase of a muscle twitch involves the EXTRA/INTRAcellular calcium levels are HIGH/LOW, and the crossbridge cycle occurs, producing force.

A

intra;
high;

107
Q

The contraction phase of a muscle twitch involves the intracellular calcium levels are high, and the crossbridge cycle occurs, producing force. In the graph of phases of a muscle twitch, this cycle is shown as…

A

the steep incline (not just the top) from the flat initial stimulus

108
Q

The relaxation phase of a muscle twitch is the decline of force from the peak, in which calcium is being pumped back _ the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the intracellular calcium levels _, therefore the force drops back to zero

A

into;
fall

109
Q

Muscle twitches increase the tension through _

A

summation

110
Q

As action potentials become more and more stimulated on the x-axis (over time), the tension generated (y-axis) goes DOWN/UP

A

UP

111
Q

Eventually, when action potentials are delivered in very close succession, their fusing of contractions will end up with _, shown as a plateaued hill on a graph of muscle twitches, considered the maximum force reached

A

tetanus

112
Q

Does tetanus occur in all muscle cells?

A

no, it doesn’t occur in cardiac muscles

113
Q

The pupillary light reflex is an example of _ cranial reflex

A

autonomic

114
Q

The photoreceptors in a pupillary light reflex activate _erent neurons that transmit signals to areas in the midbrain of the brainsteam that function as the integration centre

A

afferent

115
Q

The photoreceptors in a pupillary light reflex activate afferent neurons that transmit signals to areas in the midbrain of the brainsteam that function as the integration centre.

These midbrain areas then activate, through a polysnaptic pathway, autonomic _s that innervate the smooth muscle surrounding the pupils of both eyes

A

efferents

116
Q

The photoreceptors in a pupillary light reflex activate afferent neurons that transmit signals to areas in the midbrain of the brainsteam that function as the integration centre.

These midbrain areas then activate, through a polysnaptic pathway, autonomic efferents that innervate the smooth muscle surrounding the pupils of both eyes.

The response is pupillary CONSTRICTION/DILATION in both eyes

A

constriction

117
Q

Autonomic is another term for _

A

subconscious or involuntary

118
Q

When we say sympathetic activity increases, what do we mean?

A

the frequency of action potentials in sympathetic neurons increases

119
Q

T or F: a single preganglionic neuron generally synapses with several postganglionic neurons

A

true

120
Q

The preganglionic neurons original in _ matter, called the lateral horn/intermediolateral cell column

A

grey

121
Q

Which part of the autonomic NS - sympathetic or parasympathetic - produces the more diffuse response? Why?

A

parasympathetic, bc often the sympathetic requires more discrete actions, whereas parasympathetic can be slow and emit during rest and digest stages

122
Q

The autonomic nervous system innervates all the following effector organs and tissues EXCEPT

a. skeletal muscles
b. cardiac muscles
c. endocrine glands
d. smooth muscle

A

a. skeletal muscles

123
Q

Which of the following physiological responses is associated with elevated sympathetic nervous system activity?

a. increased contractile force of the heart
b. decreased heart rate
c. enhanced absorption of nutrients
d. enhanced digestion

A

a. increased contractile force of the heart

124
Q

What is the correct order for the steps of synaptic transmission at the motor end plate?

Acetylcholine binds to postsynaptic receptors.
Acetylcholine is released by exocytosis.
A graded depolarization is produced.
An action potential is produced on the muscle cell membrane.
Channels that primarily allow diffusion of sodium are opened.
Voltage-dependent calcium channels on the plasma membrane open.
An action potential arrives at the axon terminal.

a. 7 6 2 1 5 3 4
b. 7 5 2 1 3 4 6
c. 6 7 2 1 3 5 4
d. 7 6 2 1 3 4 6

A

a. 7 6 2 1 5 3 4

125
Q

What is the function of T tubules?

a. they conduct action potentials from the sarcolemma to the interior of the muscle cell
b. they hold the thick filaments to the Z line
c. they provide elasticity to the muscle
d. they store calcium

A

a. they conduct action potentials from the sarcolemma to the interior of the muscle cell

126
Q

The binding of calcium to troponin will directly allow which of the following?

a. the movement of tropomyosin, thereby exposing the myosin-binding site on the actin molecule
b. the hydrolysis of ATP
c. the further release of calcium into the cytoplasm

A

a. the movement of tropomyosin, thereby exposing the myosin-binding site on the actin molecule

127
Q

Which of the following endocrine glands is innervated by sympathetic preganglionic neurons?

a. adrenal medulla
b. pancreas
c. anterior pituitary
d. adrenal cortex

A

a. adrenal medulla

128
Q

In addition to sympathetic postganglionic axons, which types of axons travel in a spinal nerve?

A

axons of afferent neurons and motor neurons

129
Q

Sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate the _ _ release acetylcholine

A

sweat glands

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