Item 6 Flashcards
The _NS is ultimately responsible for everything we perceive, do, feel and think
CNS
The CNS contains approx 100 _ neurons and 100 _ synapses, all contained within the brain and spinal cord
billion (10^11)
trillion (10^14)
CNS is protected by
glial cells
_
connective tissue
cerebrospinal fluid
bone (the skull!)
_% of the CNS is composed of glial cells (or neuroglia)
75 - 90
Glial cells are un_, and support neurons through neural communication. Humans have the most glial cells of any organism (highest on the evolutionary chain)
UNexcitable
Five types of glial cells:
astrocytes
_
Schwann cells
oligodendrocytes
ependymal
microglia
_ are the most diverse and numerous of glial cells, surrounding neurons with 20 nm gaps between that do not overlap another
astrocytes - sim to stars in the universe?
Astrocytes form a structural and functional link between neurons and non-nervous tissue and _ fluid
extracellular fluid
Astrocytes DIRECT THE DEVELOPMENT of special _ that restrict the movement of certain molecules between blood and the CNS, called the blood-brain barrier
capillaries
Astrocytes guide developing neurons, esp _, to their correct destination and regulate the development and maintenance of synapses
neurites
T or F: astrocytes may support the regeneration of damaged axons
true - astros help axons!
Astrocytes help the _cellular enviro of neurons and in maintaining normal potassium levels in the _cellular [same] environment. This also means they help remove certain neurotransmitters in the interstitial environment between synapses
EXTRAcellular (around the neurons - esp at synapses)
In efferent neurons, are they covered in oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells?
Efferent axons begin in the CNS, so they have oligodendrocytes initially, but when in the PNS they only have Schwann cells
High levels of _ are toxic and contribute to the spread of neurological damage during a stroke or other types of brain damage
glutamate
yet it’s crucial for long-term potentiation. Go figure
Astrocytes synthesize glutam_, which is then released into the interstitial fluid and picked up by other neurons to form glutam_, an excitatory neurotransmitter
Glutamine;
Glutamate
The gap between synapses is considered _ space
interstitial
Astrocytes can store _, which can be broken down to lactate; the lactate is then transported to neurons where it serves as an important energy source for active areas of the brain
lactate / orig lactic acid??
T or F: microglia are the body’s way to protect neurons from toxic substances
false - microglia and astrocytes do. Astrocytes protect neurons from oxidative stress and help remove cellular debris
Glial cells may contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as
multiple sclerosis
_ disease
Parkinson’s disease
Alzheimer’s
MS results from the loss of myelin in the CNS. It is an autoimmune disease, meaning that the immune system attacks a part of the body, in this case, _ (myelin-type cells). The loss of myelin (and some axons) in the CNS slows down or stops communication along certain neural pathways
oligodendrocytes (if it was PNS it would be Schwann cells, but it’s not)
Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the loss of cholinergic neurons in certain brain areas and the replacement of the lost neurons with scar tissue called plaques. During the degeneration of cholinergic neurons, a_ and _ become overly active. These types of cells release inflammatory chemicals that enhance further de- generation of cholinergic neurons. Thus a vicious cycle takes place.
astrocytes and microglia
Early signs of Alzheimer’s disease include
loss of memory and confusion
…
loss of communication skills
decrease in cognitive functions
motor dysfunction
Early stages of _ disease may be treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (they prevent the enzymes from dissolving acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft)
Alzheimer’s
Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disease involving the loss of dopaminergic neurons. As in Alzheimer’s disease, glial cells are thought to enhance neural degeneration through the pro- duction of _ agents.
inflammatory -
In Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, glial cells produce inflammatory agents to enhance neural degeneration, whereas in MS…
oligodendrocytes aren’t able to create myelin - they are not part of the problem
T or F: Alzheimer’s disease is associated with oligodendrocytes, MS with astrocytes and microglia, and Parkinson’s with glial cells in general
false - Parkinson’s are dealing with glial cells, but MS is a CNS-based disease that deals only with oligodendrocytes, whereas Alzheimer’s disease is with microglia and astrocytes
_ disease main symptoms involves
- Tremor in hands, arms, legs, jaw, or head
- Muscle stiffness, where muscle remains contracted for a long time
- Slowness of movement
- Impaired balance and coordination, sometimes leading to falls
Parkinson’s disease
Of MS, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, which is associated with blurred vision?
MS
_ protect the central nervous system from foreign matter, such as bacteria and remnants of dead or injured cells. They carry out this function through phagocytosis and the release of cytokines in a manner similar to certain blood cells. _ [same] also protect neurons against oxidative stress
microglia
T or F: astrocytes and microglia can protect neurons from oxidative stress
true
What serves as protection against impact between the skull or spine with the soft nervous tissue within?
_
cerebrospinal fluid
meninges
The meninges are _ [number] connective tissue membranes that separate the soft tissue of the CNS from the surrounding bone
three
The cranium is the name for the
skull
The vertebral column is another name for the
spine
The order of the three meninges surrounding the soft tissue of CNS going outward (i.e., closest to the brain to farther from the brain are:
arachnoid mater
dura mater
pia mater
pia mater
arachnoid mater
dura mater
T or F: there isn’t space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater
true - if a blood vessel passing through the dura ruptures, then blood can accumulate in both maters
if a blood vessel passing through the dura ruptures, then blood can accumulate in both maters, this is called a subdural _
hematoma
The _ mater contains a weblike structure
arachnoid
The _ mater is closest to the bone
dura - it is hard and durable (tough, fibrous tissue), and has the consistency of leather
T or F: there is no space between the arachnoid and pia maters
false - it is the subarachnoid space
Where is cerebrospinal fluid contained within the CNS?
in the meninges, specifically between the pia mater and arachnoid mater, coined the subarachnoid space
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, watery fluid that bathes the CNS; it is similar (but not identical) in composition to _
plasma
T or F: CSF completely surrounds the CNS and is also otherwise found filling a number of cavities located within the brain
false - it is also found within the spinal cord
The brain contains _ ventricles/cavities that are continuous with one another
four
The two C-shaped ventricles are called _ ventricles
lateral - they flank each other
kinda look like fallopian tubes
The two C-shaped lateral ventricles are connected in the middle with a third ventricle by the interventricular f_
foramen
kinda like the opening to the uterus (in shape)
The third ventricle (in the middle of the underside of the brain) is connected to the fourth ventricle by the cerebral _
aqueduct
(sim to the vagina in shape, and this and the lower fourth ventricle looks like an inverted Diva cup)
The fourth ventricle is connected to the long line of fluid that goes into and throughout the spinal cord, namely the _ _ [composed of cerebrospinal fluid]
central canal
The lining of the ventricles and central canal is composed of epithelial cells called _ cells
ependymal
Vascular is another term for _ system
circulatory
T or F: The vascularized lining of the ventricles forms a tissue called the choroid plexus, which consists of the pia mater, capillaries, and ependymal cells, and functions in the synthesis of CSF.
true
T or F: the total volume of CSF is 125 - 150 mL, and the choroid plexus recycles 400 - 500 mL three times per day
true
As CSF is produced, it circulates through the ventricular system and enters the subarachnoid space through openings of the _ ventricle
fourth ventricle - the one closest to the spinal cord
The CSF in the subarachnoid space is eventually reabsorbed into venous blood through special struc- tures in the arachnoid mater called arachnoid v_ located at the top of the brain
villi (singular: villus)
Hydrocephalus occurs when an increase in cerebrospinal fluid causes the ventricles to become enlarged. Which structure increases CSF levels
Too much of this fluid is produced by the CHOROID PLEXUS or too little drainage of it occurs
CSF has several functions in the brain:
shock absorber, allowing CNS to ‘float’ in it
the _ fluid that bathes neurons and glial cells, providing them with nutrients and removing waste products
contributes to the maintenance of normal ionic composition around neurons
interstitial fluid
Which of the following statements about cells in the central nervous system is TRUE?
a. Astrocytes are considered glial cells but oligodendrocytes are not
b. Microglia function with astrocytes to protect neurons
c. There are more neurons than there are synapses
d. Astrocytes provide additional neurotransmitter at the synaptic cleft
b. Microglia function with astrocytes to protect neurons
What is the correct order of physical support elements of the CNS, from the OUTside to the inside?
i) Pia mater
ii) Cranium
iii) Arachnoid mater
iv) Dura mater
a. iv, iii, ii, i
b. i, iii, ii, iv
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iv, iii, i
d. ii, iv, iii, i
cranium - skull, NOT the brain
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
Which statement about the brain and central nervous system is CORRECT?
a. The brain consumes 20% of the body’s oxygen at rest
b. All of the statements are correct
c. The central nervous system receives 15% of the blood supply
d. The brain consumes 50% of the body’s glucose at rest
b. all of the statements are correct
Which one of the following is NOT a lobe of the cerebral hemisphere?
a. occipital
b. cranial
c. temporal
d. parietal
b. cranial
In the topographical organization of the motor cortex…
a. The fingers occupy a larger area than the neck
b. The tongue occupies a larger area than the hand
c.The eye occupies a larger area than the mouth
d. The face occupies a smaller area than the trunk
a. The fingers occupy a larger area than the neck
dexterity is much more important than moving the head
… is an event in which blood flow becomes interrupted because of a blocked or ruptured blood vessel in the brain
a stroke
The CNS is particularly sensitive to interruptions in blood flow because cells in the CNS contain very little gl_ (com- pared to muscle and liver) [considered the stored version of the proceeding usable form] and, therefore, must obtain gl_ [the usable form that is stored as the first option] di- rectly from the blood
glycogen;
glucose
T or F: most cells in the CNS have access to fatty acids for energy
false - no. where would fatty acids be? since they don’t, they require more glucose, hence needing 50% of all consumed
When the meninges are around the brain they are called _, whereas around the spine they’re called _l
cranial meninges;
spinal meninges
What is the space under the dura mater in the space between the cerebral hemispheres wherein arachnoid villi (sing villus) reabsorb CSF into venous blood?
sinus - it doesn’t make sense, but since the nose splits in two columns, then i’ll think of the sinus splitting the two hemispheres
it looks like a big blue lake (sinus) that is surrounded by land (dura mater) with peninsulas (arachnoid villi) that push out but are covered with a guard rail (arachnoid mater), and covered in a deck (subarachnoid space)
In a metaphor for the top of the brain, what would be the missing items:
it looks like a big, blue lake shaped in an inverted triangle (sinus) that is surrounded by land (dura mater) with peninsulas (arachnoid villi) that push out but are covered with a guard rail (arachnoid mater), and covered in a deck (_ _ )
subarachnoid space
Taking a dorsal view is viewing a section from the _
bottom
Plasma is typically higher in glucose, proteins, potassium and calcium, but not… [2 ions]
sodium and chloride
The brain and spinal cord cannot obtain energy from _ _ during periods of reduced oxygen depletion, therefore an uninterrupted supply of oxygen and glucose is required to stay alive
anaerobic metabolism
During starvation or _ _, CNS tissues can use ketones to supply up to 2/3 of its needs, despite being a process of lipid catabolism
diabetes mellitus - issues with glucose
The exchange of oxygen, glucose and other materials between blood and CNS cells occurs across the walls of _
capillaries
T or F: choroid plexus is found in every ventricle
true - it’s a wee thing, but it is the TISSUE that surrounds the ventricles, prime for circulation, and which produces CSF
The capillary walls are composed of a single layer of _l cells, a type of epithelial cell
endothelial
- endo-within the tissue
Much like along cell walls, hydro_ molecules diffuse across membranes of endothelial cells (lining the vesicles, i.e., choroid plexus, i.e., maker of CSF), whereas hydro_ molecules diffuse through relatively large gaps (pores) between the endothelial cells
hydrophobic (loves fat - easily moves within membrane);
hydrophilic (hates fat - needs pores to move through, otherwise repelled by fatty membrane)
_cytosis involves the ACTIVE movement of a macromolecule such as a protein across an endothelial cell by endocytosis into the cell followed by exocytosis out of the cell
transcytosis
the movement of hydro_ molecules across capillary walls is restricted by the blood-brain barrier, the interstitial fluid in the CNS
hydrophilic - molecules that hate fat cannot move through the fatty membrane of the capillary walls to get into the blood-brain barrier
What maintains the strict distinction of the blood-brain barrier, i.e., between the blood and CSF, and avoiding capillary pores for hydrophilic molecules to move in/out? _ junctions
tight junctions
T or F: astrocytes develop and maintain tight junctions
false - astrocytes stimulate endothelial cells which then develop and maintain tight junctions - astrocytes are supportive, but don’t produce things
How do select hydrophilic solutes passively move through the blood-brain barrier?
by carrier mediated transport, NOT by simple diffusion
How do select hydrophobic molecules and gases move through the blood-brain barrier?
they move by simple diffusion
e.g., alcohol can move freely, which depresses CNS function by several mechanisms
GLUT-_ carriers transport glucose across the blood-brain barrier
1 - not to be confused with GLUT-4 carriers which are found in membranes of most other cells
Insulin actions in the CNS regulate …
food intake! not glucose metabolism, therefore it is considered a satiety hormone that decreases hunger
makes sense, with those having Type II diabetes with low insulin may overeat causing them to be obese
T or F: grey matter in the CNSs composed of cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals
TRUE - and its axons are covered in myelin from oligodendrocytes which is considered the white matter
Cerebral cortex is composed of a thin layer of _ matter that covers the brain, and beneath it is the cerebrum (fibers) which is composed of _ matter, and embedded within it is the nuclei which is composed of _ matter
TOP: grey - CEREBRAL CORTEX (6 LAYERS)
MIDDLE: white - CEREBRUM FIBRES
BOTTOM: grey - NUCLEI
what the hell, right? I mean, i thought things were more simple than this. suffice it to say, the brain is covered in grey white grey
In the spinal cord, the white matter (fibers) is on the _side, and the grey matter is on the _side, opposite to the brain
outside;
inside
i mean, the spinal cord does look white with a grey ‘steak’ shape within it, so it’s opposite to the brain. what a joke
_ fibers/tracts connect the cerebral cortex with lower levels of the brain or the spinal cord, with corticospinal tracts connecting regions of the cortex with grey matter in the spinal cord
projection
T or F: association fibers connect one area of cerebral cortex to another area of the cortex on the same side of the brain, with the arcuate fasciculus being an example on the left lateral side. However, commissural fibers connect cortical regions on one side of the brain with corresponding cortical regions on the other side
true
associate on the same side, while you commiserate altogether, on both sides
The arcuate fasciculus connects _ area and _ area
Broca’s and Wernicke’s
Most of the _ fibers are found in the corpus callosum, which separates the two cerebral hemispheres
commissural
bringing the body public together (‘corpus’) allows them to commiserate (‘commissural’)
Nuclei can also be called _ nuclei since they are found in smaller areas of grey matter embedded within the cortex
subcortical
NOT BASAL NUCLEI - A SPECIFIC STRUCTURE
The _ _ is typically 44 cm long and ranges in diameter from 1 to 1.4 cm
spinal cord
There are 31 _ _, with each pair exiting the vertebral column between two adjacent vertebrae
spinal nerves
The spinal nerves (formed in pairs) ascending to descending are from this list:
cervical 8
lumbar 5
sacral 5
thoracic 12
cervical nerves
thoracic nerves
lumbar nerves
sacral nerves
The cervical nerves emerge from the neck region, and there are _ pairs of them
8
how do i remember that? cervical has 8 letters
The thoracic nerves emerge in the chest region and there are _ pairs of them
12
- the chest is the tallest part of the spine, so i just have to remember tall 12
The lumbar nerves emerge in the region of the lower back and there are _ pairs of them
5
it’s a small part of the spine, and there are 5+1 letters in lumbar
The sacral nerves emerge in the region of the tailbone or coccyx and there are _ pairs of them, and a single coccygeal nerve (C0) which emerges from the tip of the coccyx
5 pairs
sacral is 5 pairs + 1 coccygeal. I don’t know, I’ll just have to remember this shit
Although spinal nerves emerge along the whole length of the vertebral column, the spinal cord itself extends for only two-thirds of the column’s length. Therefore, some of the spinal nerves actually travel _ within the vertebral column before exiting it.
downward
In fact, the bottom third of the vertebral column contains individual nerves, but no spinal cord proper. Because the nerve bundle in this region resembles a horse’s tail, it is called the cauda _
equina
When physicians administer drugs spinally (give an epidural) or take a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (perform a spinal tap), they do so in the _ _ region to avoid potential damage to the spinal cord itself
caudal equina - they are individual nerves, so their injury wouldn’t necessarily impact the spinal cord itself
The numerous axons that travel within a single spinal nerve generally travel to adjacent regions of the body. Thus it is possible to map out the body’s surface into different sensory regions called d_s, each of which is served by a particular spinal nerve
dermatomes
The _ is not mapped into dermatomes because it is innervated by cranial nerves, which emerge from the brain rather than from the spinal cord.
face
The CI dermatome is not mapped because the first _ nerve does not provide sensory innervation of the skin.
cervical
Numbness in the Tl dermatome on left right side would indicate damage to the first thoracic spinal nerve on the _ side, whereas numbness in the Tl dermatome and all lower dermatomes would indicate damage to the spinal cord between the levels of C8 and Tl
same
The gray matter within the butterfly-shaped region in the interior of the spinal cord contains interneurons, cell bodies and dendrites of _erent neurons, and the axon terminals of _erent neurons
efferent;
afferent
I guess I just think of effector cell bodies and dendrites coming from the BRAIN ITSELF, when in actuality it’s within the spinal cord, which is still the CNS!
The projection fibers are shown as _ing
crossing - as though from one portion of the brain to the contralateral side, which makes sense since injury to the left side of my brain will likely show difficulties on my right side
A coronal section of the brain would separate…
the front from the back (like a headband)
A midsagittal section of the brain would separate…
equally the left side from the right, much like the two hemispheres split down the middle
There’s actually more vertebrae mass on the _ side of the body than the _
ventral (front) than the dorsal (posterior)
The dorsal horn encompasses the _ half of the grey matter, whereas the ventral horn passes the _ half
posterior/back;
anterior/front
Histology of the spinal cord is typically viewed with the _ horn at the top and the _ horn at the bottom
dorsal;
ventral
Afferent fibers originate in the periphery as sensory receptors and terminate in the _ horn, where they synapse on interneurons or efferent neurons
dorsal
The cell bodies of these afferent fibers are not located in the spinal cord itself; they are located outside the spinal cord in clusters called _ _ _
dorsal root ganglia (sing ganglion)
what the hell. I thought they originate closer to the receptors, but I guess not. so they’re technically not in the spinal cord, but very close to it
Numbness in C6 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]
thumb, top of the forearms, tops of the shoulders
Numbness in C7 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]
pointer or middle fingers/palm close to the thumb, back of the arms and along the upper back
Numbness in C8 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]
ring or pinkie fingers or the palm near the pinkie
C3 and C4 dermatomes are separated by the _ [body part]
clavicle
The nipples are typically found close to dermatome _[letter] _[number]
T4
T4 slips are used at tax time which are like putting on unwanted nipple clamps
The belly button is typically found close to dermatome _[letter] _[number]
T10
I don’t know. the belly button is a ring that looks like a zero, so T10
S2 - 4 dermatomes would deal with issues with the …, whereas S5 would be issues with the _
genitals [male and female?];
anus
If I had numbness in my big toe or next 2 toes, top of the foot (internal) or my shins I would suspect the physican would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome
L5
If my ankles, calves, or the outer back of my legs were numb, I’d suspect the physician would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome
S1
If I had numbness at the top of my head, I would suspect the physician would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome
trick question! the face, ears and top of the head are mapped by the cranial nerves which are found closer to the brain
Some people with peripheral neurological damage may lose sensory function from a specific spinal level, but not motor function. Where must the damage have occurred?
The dorsal root or dorsal root ganglion— the only sites where motor and sensory axons travel in distinct paths
The cell bodies of _fferent neurons are located in the spinal cord. Efferent neurons originate in the _al horn and travel to the periphery, where they form synapses with skeletal muscles
afferent;
ventral
In the _ and upper _ regions of the spinal cord, there is another area of gray matter called the lateral horn, or intermediolateral cell column, which is located between the dorsal and ventral horns on either side
thoracic;
upper lumbar
In the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord, there is another area of gray matter called the lateral horn, or intermediolateral cell column, which is located between the dorsal and ventral horns on either side. They contain the origins of efferent neurons of the _ nervous system
autonomic
T or F: spinal nerves contain both afferent and efferent axons, so they’re actually a mix
true - they’re called mixed nerves
_scending tracts transmit info from the spinal cord to the brain, whereas _scending tracts transmit info from the brain to the spinal cord. They are bilateral (each one is found on both sides of the spinal cord)
ascending (goes up):
descending (goes down)
Descending tracts include the _ tracts that transmit motor commands to efferent neurons on both sides of the spinal cord, found on the lateral and anterior sides, and named as such:
_
Lateral _ tracts
Anterior _ tracts
pyramidal - creating a triangle
lateral pyramidal tracts (found near the dorsal horn)
anterior pyramid tracts (found near the ventral horn)
Descending tracts include the pyramidal tracts (both lateral and anterior) and the v_ tract
vestibulospinal tract
If it ain’t a pyramidal or vestibulospinal tract, then it is _scending
ascending
lateral pyramidal, anterior pyramidal and vestibulospinal tracts are all descending, whereas others are ascending
Ascending tracts include the
d_ _ms
lateral spinothalamic tract
spinotectal tract
anterior spinothalamic tract
dorsal columns
The ascending and descending tracts effectively link the _ nerves to the brain.
peripheral
When afferent neurons are activated by a stimulus acting on a sensory receptor (for example, when a finger touches a thorn), action potentials travel along the nerve fiber from the sensory receptor to the axon terminal, usually in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The axon ter- minal releases a neurotransmitter that transmits the signal to an _ (or, in rare cases, directly to an efferent neuron). Some of these _s [repeated word] form the ascending tracts, which transmit the information to the brain so that perception of the stimulus can occur.
interneuron
Controlling efferent neurons is not the only function that descending fibers perform, however. Some descending tracts modulate sensory information, such as _.
pain
Analgesic systems are systems that block the perception of pain during periods of stress. These systems work by blocking synaptic transmission between a pain-transmitting _ neuron and interneurons in the spinal cord. By blocking the transmission of pain information to the brain, perception of a painful stimulus is prevented
afferent
The brain consists of the
forebrain
cerebellum
_
brainstem
The lateral spinothalamic tract is an ascending pathway that originates with sensory receptors in the periphery and travels up the spinal cord, eventually communicating sensory information to the _ and then to the cerebral cortex.
thalamus
The spinothalamic tract moves to the _lateral side in the spinal cord
contralateral
Both pyramidal tracts (lateral and anterior) originate in the primary _ cortex.
motor
The lateral pyramidal tract crosses over in the _ [not pyramidal tracts] whereas the anterior pyramidal tract crosses over in the spinal cord. Both tracts terminate in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, where they communicate to motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle.
medullary pyramids
(medullary pyramids are found in the medulla oblongata)
The forebrain includes the cerebrum and the diencephalon, which includes the thalamus and the _, each of which contains multiple small nuclei
hypothalamus
The _ (derived from the Latin word for “little brain”) is bilaterally symmetrical, with an outer cortex and inner nuclei, similar to the forebrain.
cerebellum
It is located inferior to the forebrain and dorsal or posterior to the brainstem.
The cerebellum
The cerebellum functions in
motor coordination and balance,
providing feedback to motor sys- tems to ensure smooth movements of the _ and body
eyes
The _ connects the forebrain and the cerebellum.
brainstem
The brainstem includes the
midbrain
pons
_ _
medulla oblongata
(important for efferent axons along descending tracts, like the lateral pyramidal tracts)
The parts of the brainstem from top to bottom are
medulla oblongata
midbrain
pons
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
Although the spinal nerves are found in the spinal cord (and with them the dermathones), the cranial nerves (important for the face, ears and top of the head) are found in the _, apart from 2
brainstem
Despite the name ‘cranial’ nerves, they are actually nerves of the _NS
PNS
There are _ pairs of cranial nerves
12 pairs
Of the 12 cranial nerves, _ are associated with sensory nerves, and 1 that is a motor nerve
3
olfactory (I - 1)
optic (II - 2)
vestibulocochlear (VIII - 8)
1
accessory (XI - 11)
“Some say marry money, but my brother says big brains matter most” is an outdated (and no longer accurate) mnemonic for
the type of nerve class for the 12 cranial nerves
“Oh oh oh to take a family vacation go Vegas after hours” is a mnemonic device for remembering…
the names of the 12 cranial nerves from 1 to 12
“Oh oh oh to take a family vacation go Vegas after hours” is a mnemonic device for remembering the cranial nerve types. What differentiates the first two “oh”s, “vacation”, and “after”? (or cranial nerves 1, 2, 8 and 11)
they aren’t mixed nerves - 1, 2, 8 are sensory, 11 is motor
_ (3) is a mixed nerve class that involves eye movements, proprioception, as well as accommodation and pupillary reflexes (more than the trochlear (4) nerve class
oculomotor
Cranial nerves 2, 3, 4, and 6 are used for _ [body part]
eyes
2 optic
3 oculomotor
4 trochlear
6 abducens
Cranial nerves 1 and 5 are used for _ [special sense; although they may overlap with others, but they share this one in common]
smell
1 olfactory
5 (trigeminal)
Cranial nerves 5, 7, 9 and _ are needed for eating [both eating and swallowing]
12 hypoglossal
5 trigeminal
7 facial
9 glossopharyngeal
Cranial nerve _ seems the only one associated wth hearing or equilibrium
8 vestibulocochlear
Cranial nerves 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 are [I may be wrong!] used for _ [human ability]
talking
5 trigeminal
7 facial
9 glossopharyngeal
10 vagus
11 accessory
12 hypoglossal
Contained within the brainstem, the r_ f_, a diffuse network of nuclei that plays roles in sleep-wake cycles
arousal of cerebral cortex
consciousness
reticular formation
The cortex is thin, but actually is arranged in _ functionally distinct layers, their arrangement varying depending on the function of the particular cortical region
6
6 in the cortex
The _ sulcus separates the frontal from the parietal lobe
central
it’s in the centre of the brain, and splits it from the front to the back so…central
The lateral sulcus/Sylvian fissure separates the temporal lobe with the _ lobe
frontal
The parietal lobal contains the primary _ cortex which is associated with processing somatic (body) sensory info assoc with somesthetic sensations and propioception
somatosensory
_ception is awareness of muscle tensions and joint and limb positions
proprioception
Somesthetic sensations are processed by the primary somatosensory complex, which are _ sensations
surface sensations such as touch, itch, temperature and pain
Does proprioception have to do with pain?
no - nociception does
The central sulcus separates the primary somatosensory complex in the parietal lobe and the _ _ cortex in the frontal lobe
primary motor cortex
Does the frontal lobe contain areas for planning and language and personality?
yes, even though language is mostly dealt with on the left temporal side
The motor _ and the sensory _ [same word] map body parts onto its cortical surface for which they correspond
homunculus; homunculus
Certain areas of cortex called _ areas are involved in more complex processing that requires integrating different types of info
association areas
T or F: everyone’s brain is dominant for a particular function on the same side
false - there are some who are flipped or otherwise different
Left-handedness suggests the possibility of brain _ that is not absolute
lateralization
The _ side of the body is associated with:
spatial orientation
creativity
face recognition
music
dream imagery
philosophy
intuition
right
The _ side of the body is generally associated with:
logic and analytic reasoning
strong language capabilities
math skills
left
What makes a person have a split-brain and for what purpose?
corpus callosum cut, often to treat epilepsy
The more prominent subcortical nuclei are the _ nuclei which include the
caudate nucleus
globus pallidus
putamen
basal nuclei
it’s subcortical, meaning it’s in the gray matter beneath the white matter in the cortex (grey white grey, so the most interior part)
The basal nuclei are notable for their role in modifying _t
movement
The diencephalon is a part of the forebrain which includes the cerebrum. It is composed of the hypothalamus and thalamus. The thalamus is a cluster of nuclei that functions as a _ _
relay center
That’s why there are so many thalamo- pathways, because it filters so much sensory information, as well as provides feedback from the motor cortex (i.e., allows ascending and descending info relay)
The thalamus is associated with
directing attention (afferent)
controlling _ (efferent)
movement
don’t get confused with the thalamic ability to control movement while the basal nuclei is associated with MODIFYING movement. what’s the difference? how the hell should I know? the thalamus is a midline structure (inferior to the cerebrum), whereas the basal ganglia are subcortical structures (still within the cerebrum), so subcortical structure/basal ganglia are exterior/superior to the thalamus and hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is _ior to the thalamus and has many roles in regulating homeostasis by serving as a major link to the nervous and endocrine systems
inferior / away from the head / lower / caudal
therefore the thalamus would be superior/close to the head / higher / top
The hypothalamus releases tropic hormones that regulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones and from the posterior pituitary, which include
antidiuretic hormone
_
oxytocin
_ hormone regulates plasma volume and osmolarity and is released by the posterior pituitary but is controlled by the hypothalamus
antidiuretic
hypothalamus affects behaviours including:
satiety and hunger and regulating eating behaviours
_
thermoregulation
emotions and associated behaviours, including stress
circadian rhythm
thirst and regulating drinking behaviours
The hypothalamus exerts many of its responses through communication with the _ nervous system, the efferent branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls the inter- nal organs. The hypothalamus has both direct and indirect inputs
autonomic
The s_c nucleus of the hypothalamus generates and regulates the circadian rhythm, a series of ENDOGENOUS fluctuations that occur on a 24-hour cycle
suprachiasmatic
T or F: the pineal glad is an endocrine organ extending from the corpus callosum that secretes melatonin
false - it extends from the diencephalon
it’s related to circadian rhythms, much like the hypothalamus which is a part of the diencephalon
The _ system is a diverse collection of brain areas that is found in all mammals and is associated with autonomic functions, motivation, memory, and emotions
limbic
The limbic system includes the
_
- hippocampus
- fornix
- cingulate
- parahippocampal gyri
- portions of the basal nuclei, prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus
amygdala
The limbic system, as one of the more “primitive” areas of our brain, is involved in basic drives. For example, one of the oldest regions of the brain (in terms of evolution) is the _, which is involved in aggression and fear.
amygdala
The hippocampus, a major component of the limbic system, is involved in
learning
_
memory
T or F: The glossopharyngeal system provides important sensory input to the limbic system, especially in lower mammalian species
false - the olfactory
although tasting and eating is all well and good, it smelling that is especially important for lower mammals
T or F: The third ventricle goes through the centre of the subcortical gray matter, flanked by the thalamus (superior) and hypothalamus (inferior), and the basal nuclei (lateral)
true
Thank God. How the hell do people remember this crap. I should have stuck with an arts degree
We typically analyse parts of the subcortical gray matter using a _ section, showing the interior of the brain from the anterior side
coronal - as if you were wearing a headband that cut through your brain and were looking at its interior from the front.
Morbid, huh?
What is the order from superior to inferior in the subcortical gray matter?
Corpus callosum
lateral ventricle
caudate nucleus
choroid plexus
_
third ventricle
hypothalamus
amygdala
Corpus callosum
lateral ventricle
caudate nucleus
choroid plexus
thalamus
third ventricle
hypothalamus
amygdala
What is the order of basal ganglia from lateral to interior in the subcortical gray matter?
globus pallidus (small and large)
putamen
putamen
globus pallidus larger
globus pallidus smaller
The limbic system require a wide variety of structures including the:
cingulate gyrus
olfactory bulb
mammilary bodies of hypothalamus
fornix
mediodorsal nucleus of thalamus
_
amygdala
hippocampus
Wernicke’s and Broca’s area are considered _ cortex
association
Wernicke’s area is located in the posterior and superior portion of the _ lobe and the inferior _ [different] lobe
temporal;
parietal
Broca’s area is found in the _ lobe
frontal
T or F: Wernicke’s area is assoc with comprehending language in many forms, such as sound, written words, hand signals, and including hearing language
false - comprehending and everything else except but not hearing language
Broca’s area is assoc with language _, the ability to speak or write words
expression
Can a person with Wernicke’s aphasia speak words?
yes, but they appear jumbled, as if a ‘word salad’
Damage to Broca’s area is assoc with an inability to…
make the correct sounds or write the correct words
In deaf people, the right auditory cortex takes part in the processing of _ _
sign language. it is not found in the hearing community
If a bilingual has a stroke, the language that will generally suffer the greatest deficit is the.. language
most recently learned language / later language
If a bilingual has a stroke, if both languages were learned about the same time, then the two languages tend to be equally affected, and any recovery …
occurs simultaneously
T or F: activity is absent during sleep
false - it is decreased, allowing movement in bed, as well as perception for being awakened by sensory stimuli such as sound or touch
Some theories for sleep:
restorative
conservation of energy
…
facilitating storage of long-term memories
maintaining adequate immune system function
mentally practicing and refining adaptive behaviours during dreams
Much of what we know about sleep and its effects on brain function comes from _graphy; a technique that uses electrodes affixed to the scalp to record electrical activity in the brain. Recordings of such activity, commonly known as brain waves, are called electro_grams (EEGs)
encephalography;
electroencephalograms
Using EEGs, researcher have identified 2 kinds of sleep:
…
REM sleep
slow-wave sleep (SWS)
Slow-wave sleep (SWS) is associated with multiple stages of _ frequency waves in EEG while REM is characterized with _ frequency waves in the EEG and periodic episodes of rapid eye movement
low;
high
SWS is also called - sleep
non-REM sleep
makes it easy. it’s REM or it ain’t
You tend to see medium to high amplitude wavelengths in … sleep
slow-wave sleep SWS
You tend to see low amplitude wavelengths in … sleep
REM sleep
Touch perception requires that sensory neurons from the skin transmit information to
a) The basal nuclei.
b) The somatosensory cortex.
c) The hypothalamus.
d) The limbic system.
e) The hippocampus.
b) The somatosensory cortex.
Which of the meninges is closest to the neural tissue?
a) Dura mater
b) Arachnoid mater
c) Pia mater
c) Pia mater
At rest; the brain accounts for how much of oxygen consumption within the body?
a) 2%
b) 5%
c) 20%
d) 40%
e) 50%
c) 20%
Most of the fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres are located in the
a) Hippocampus.
b) Corpus callosum.
c) Corticospinal tract.
d) Central canal.
e) Cerebral ventricles
b) Corpus callosum.
All spinal nerves contain
a) Afferent fibers.
b) Efferent fibers.
c) Both afferent and efferent fibers.
d) Neither afferent nor efferent fibers
c) Both afferent and efferent fibers.
The origin of neurons of the corticospinal tract is the
a) Ventral horn of the spinal cord.
b) Somatosensory cortex
c) Primary motor cortex.
d) Cerebellum.
e) Thalamus
c) Primary motor cortex
NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH EFFERENT AXONS. UGH
Which of the following is not a component of the limbic system?
a) Hippocampus
b) Cerebral cortex
c) Amygdala
d) Midbrain
e) Hypothalamus
d) Midbrain
The circadian rhythm is established by which brain area?
a) Suprachiasmatic nucleus
b) Amygdala
c) Thalamus
d) Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex
e) Pons
a) Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Parkinson’s disease is caused by loss of dopaminergic innervation of the
a) Cerebellum.
b) Basal nuclei.
c) Brainstem.
d) Primary motor cortex.
e) Thalamus.
b) Basal nuclei
Which of the following reflexes is monosynaptic?
a) Withdrawal reflex
b) Crossed-extensor reflex
c) Muscle spindle stretch reflex
d) Both a and c
e) All of the above
c) Muscle spindle stretch reflex
The area of the brain important for the maintenance of posture is the
a) Primary motor cortex.
b) Basal nuclei.
c) Brainstem.
d) Cerebellum.
e) Limbic system
c) Brainstem.
Long-term potentiation is
a) A prolonged increase in synaptic activity at a given synapse.
b) The formation of new synapses.
c) Memory from more than 10 years ago.
d) Activated through the ascending reticular activating system.
e) All of the above.
a) A prolonged increase in synaptic activity at a given synapse.
Where is cerebrospinal fluid synthesized?
choroid plexus
Which type of junction between the endothelial cells of brain capillaries produces the blood-brain barrier?
tight junction
Myelinated axons are found in (gray/ white) matter.
white
Somatic efferents originate in the (dorsal/ ventral) horn of the spinal cord
ventral
The major function of the (cerebrum/ cerebellum) is to coordinate body movements.
cerebellum
Which three structures make up the brainstem?
midbrain, pons, medulla
Which side of the brain is generally associated with creativity?
right
What are the two main structures of the diencephalon?
thalamus.
hypothalamus
What is the major sensory relay nucleus to the cortex?
thalamus
The area of the brain most closely associated with fear is the
amygdala
The _ system is associated with
emotions; learning; and memory
limbic
The ability to recall information when taking physiology exams is an example of memory
declarative
The afferents that activate reflex motor actions are different from those that activate ascending tracts to communicate a sensory input to the brain (true/false)
false
During … sleep, muscle tone is present but diminished compared to the awake state. Spinal reflexes are still present and occasional bursts of in- voluntary activity occur every 10-20 minutes.
SWS/ non-REM / NREM sleep
T or F: somnambulism (sleepwalking) is more likely to occur during the deeper stages of SWS than during lighter stages of SWS sleep and not at all during REM sleep
true
T or F: Sleepwalking occurs in approximately 40% of adults but is rare in children
false - it’s the opposite! 40% of kids, rare in adults
Talking in your sleep (somniloquy) also occurs during _
SWS/non-REM/NREM
Brain activity _creases in most regions during SWS, and activity in the parasympathetic nervous system and certain brainstem structures increases
decreases
During _ (sleep), a person may have recurring thoughts and may dream, but dreaming is sparse and thoughts and dreams tend to be more logical and less emotional compared to those occurring in _ (sleep)
SWS;
REM
Snoring may occur during _ (sleep)
SWS
Do rapid eye movements only occur during REM sleep?
no, they may still happen in SWS but not as likely
The CNS site of induct in slow wave sleep (SWS) is the _, whereas for REM it is the pons
forebrain
You would classify _ sleep as increased relative to rest while awake, whereas _ sleep is decreased relative to rest while awake. For the most part, _ is considered less active apart from EEG ratings
REM;
SWS;
SWS
T or F: Body functions often have a sleep-wake cycle which may vary with the normal periods of wakefulness and sleep
true, incl body temperature, etc.
The reticular formation of the brainstem, a diffuse network of nuclei that form the ascending reticular activating system, is critical in maintaining _. Its input projects to the cortex through relays in the diencephalon (thalamus and hypo-), and forebrain and “awakens” the cortex, making it more receptive to incoming signals from other pathways
wakefulness
The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is associated with the following neurotransmitters for wakefulness or sleepiness:
acetylcholine
norepinephrine / noradrenaline
_
dopamine
T of F: the hypothalamus uses neurotransmitters such as histamine and norepinephrine to wake up the brain
false - histamine and OREXIN
When you are awake and alert, an EEG shows a pattern of high- frequency, low-amplitude oscillations known as _ waves, which reflect electrical signals being generated by large numbers of neu- rons at different times. When you are awake but resting, the EEG shifts to a new pattern of lower- frequency, higher- amplitude waves known as _ waves
beta;
alpha
_ waves in sleep during an EEG are similar to general audience noise in a stadium (not synchronized), whereas _ waves are similar to a crowd chanting (synchronized)
beta;
alpha
In SWS, stage 1 sleep is considered ‘_’, whereas stage 4 sleep is considered ‘deep’
light - takes little to wake someone up
deep - takes a lot to wake someone up
T or F: you are actually not asleep during stage 1 SWS sleep; you’re just drowsy
true
The K-complexes seen in Figure 9.26c represent sleep spindles, which are periodic bursts of synchronized activity occurring in the cortex and thalamus. Sleep spindles commonly occur during sleep stages _ and _(#s)
2 and 3
EEGs are measured in _ [amplitude] and frequencies are given in hertz (Hz) - they are mapped on a graph with time (seconds) on the x-axis and _ [first answer; amplitudes] starting at 0 on the y-axis
microvolts (uV)
Why is REM considered paradoxical sleep?
because one has the highest arousal threshold during sleep (you can sleep through the loudest/withstand the most movement, etc.), yet you are more likely to awaken spontaneously
When you first fall asleep, you go into stage 1 SWS. From there, you proceed through stages 2-4 in order. About an hour after sleep on- set, you go into stages _ through _ and then enter into your first period of REM sleep. At approximately 90-minute inter- vals, this pattern repeats a few times, except that you tend to spend less time in the deeper stages of SWS and more time in REM sleep as sleeping continues
4 to 2
so you go first into 1 (drowsy), then you go through 2 - 4 (takes about an hour)
then you backtrack from 4 to 2, and then go into REM (so prob 90 min from the start)
about every 90 min this pattern repeats itself: 2 - 4, 4 - 2, REM
If more REM sleep occurs as time progresses, what is more likely to happen?
waking up spontaneously, although being able to sleep through almost anything during that time - does this suggest that it’s more dangerous for a fire alarm to go off around 5 or 6 in the morning? maybe
Physiological effects from PTSD include:
increased responsiveness of the sympathetic nervous system
anxiety
…
decreased levels of serotonin in the brain
sleep disorders
Psychological effects from PTSD include:
…
re-experiencing the traumatic event
avoidance (phobias) of remindings of the traumatic event
numbing of emotions
The _ nervous system helps with the immediate adaptation to stress by increasing blood flow to the muscles and heart and by mobilizing energy stores
autonomic
When a person is subjected to stress, the --_ axis becomes activated, causing cortisol release and activating the autonomic nervous system. Stress, which is defined as a strain or pressure on the body, comes in many forms, including exercise, changes in the environment, illness, injury, or fear. Cortisol helps the body adjust to stress by mobilizing energy stores, even at the expense of breaking down cell proteins to amino acids.
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
PTSD is best treated with …, such as paroxetine (Paxil) and sertraline (Zoloft)
serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
The _ hemisphere is more closely associated with negative emotions, whereas the _ with positive emotions
right;
left
I don’t know how I’d remember that. Laugh in your left brain and cry on your right brain? I dunno
Dopaminergic systems (motivating/rewarding) occur in the _ _, which then project to the limbic system
basal ganglia
maybe…the BFG is so happy, and the basal ganglia brings dopamine
_ learning requires making connections between 2 or more stimuli (e.g., salivation reflect in Pavlov’s dogs or using mnemonics to study something)
associative
The opposite of sensitization (an increase in response to repeated stimulus) is _
habituation
e.g., if I hear repeatedly the noise of construction outside my window where I live (j’habite a proximite d’un chantier de construction)
_ memory is the memory of learned MOTOR skills and behaviours
procedural
Procedural memory (learned motor skills and behaviours) uses several brain areas including the
cerebellum
_ _
pons
basal nuclei
Declarative memory (or _ memory) is the memory of learned experiences, such as facts and events and other things that can be stated verbally
explicit - you talk it out so it’s explicit
Explicit/declarative memory involves brain areas like the _
hippocampus
Working memory is also called …, which can be later consolidated and last for years or a lifetime
short-term memory
The _ lobe is critical for short-term memory
the frontal lobe - if my concussion impacted my frontal lobe, then it makes sense why my short-term memory isn’t as strong
The _ lobe and the hippocampus are necessary for long-term memory
temporal
L_-_ _n is thought to be important in the con- solidation of long-term memory because it provides a mechanism whereby repetitive activity in particular neural pathways, such as might occur during repetition of a learned fact, can leave a more or less permanent “record” of itself once the activity has ceased
long-term potentiation (LTP)
During long-term potentiation (LTP), when glutamate binds to NMDA receptors, _ channels open; when this molecule binds to AMPA receptors, _ channels open. When the presynaptic cell releases glutamate, it binds to _ receptors
calcium;
sodium;
BOTH!
What is the ‘nemesis’ to creating long-term potentials when low to moderate levels of glutamate are present in the synaptic cleft? The answer is: the NMDA receptor channels (postsynaptic cell) have a blockage due to _ ions, which results in an EPSP that may or may not reach threshold for an action potential
magnesium;
In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the following move into the cortex (association areas) to begin emotional responses:
_
sensory stimuli
thoughts
memory
In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, once the cortex (association areas) integrate what they receive, they relay to the _ system. This system stimulates the hypothalamus, as well as incurs emotion.
limbic system
In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the hypothalamus stimulates hormonal changes brought on by emotions as well as stimulates the _ to incur motor and/or autonomic responses
brainstem
T or F: the limbic system incurs emotion which then impacts the cortex (association areas) further, by their own perception of that same emotion
true
cool, ain’t it? the cortex is self-reflecting, so we’d imagine that emotions as well as one’s perception of that same emotion is influential
In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the perception of emotion by the cortex (association areas) based on that same emotion that is incurred by the limbic system then influences the cortex by instituting responses to the brainstem, as well as _ responses in the body
motor
what’s interesting is that the cortex’ perception of emotion influences the motor cortex which then influences the brainstem. As you note, the brainstem if influenced by the limbic system which is the system that creates the emotion for which is perceived by the cortex (although remember the limbic system connects through the hypothalamus to the brainstem).
It’s a circuitous system, which explains the vast array of system integration within the body for simply expressing emotion
Various structures of the brain are involved in producing emotions, both the “feeling” and the responses associated with them. Cortical association areas integrate thoughts, memory, and sensory information and communicate to the limbic system. The limbic system “creates” the emotion, but we are not aware of the emotion until it is transmitted back to the cortex for _.
perception
The limbic system also communicates the emotion to the hypothalamus, which is responsible for BODILY responses coupled with the emotion, including _ changes (for example, adrenaline release), motor responses (for example, frowning), and autonomic responses (for example, changes in heart rate)
hormonal
Aerobic exercise improves
whole-body metabolism
body weight
…
cardiovascular function
Hypothalamic enzyme, AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) is said to enhance w_-_ m_
whole-body metabolism
Activation of nociceptors in the viscera produce a type of pain called _ pain, such as a person having a heart attack who complains of pain in the left chest, upper arm and shoulder but not the heart itself.
referred
Referred pain occurs because the second order-neurons that receive input from visceral _erents also receive input from somatic _erents. When a person has a heart attack, the brain interprets these signals as a somatic DISTURBANCE bc that is what such signals have meant in the past
afferents;
afferents
The clinical map of referred pain show pain in the esophagus on the…
left part of the chest
The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the heart as on…
the upper arm and shoulder leading to the neck
The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the kidneys as on…
the lower abdomen
The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the appendix as on…
the bottom right-side of the abdomen
Astrocytes develop connections between _ and non-_ tissue
nervous;
non-nervous
_ possibly modulate synaptic activity
astrocytes
Astrocytes maintain normal electrolyte composition of _ fluid in CNS, especially K+
interstitial
T or F: astrocytes are assoc with glucose synthesis
false - with GLYCOGEN synthesis
Microglia are considered the “_” of the CNS
soldiers; fight against toxic substances
_ is the infection of the meninges that is either viral or bacterial and mimics flu-like symptoms
meningitis
Can the brain membranes move and stretch?
yes, which allows the meninges to exist without being highly-compressible for physical support of the CNS
Mouthguards are used to reduce shaking of the jaw, which is to protect athletes from causing disruption in the _ _ of the brainstem, which could cause loss of consciousness and even death
reticular formation
CSF is secreted by _ cells of the choroid plexus
ependymal cells
a type of glial cell
CSF circulates through _ to subarachnoid space
ventricles
CSF is reabsorbed by _ _
arachnoid villi
The CSF maintains a stable _ fluid environment
interstitial
Plasma has a lower pH and potassium concentration to …, which has an otherwise similar makeup
CSF
plasma is portion of the blood WITHOUT cells
_, the cerebral aqueduct and the central canal are filled with CSF
Ventricles
A spinal tap is another name for a _ _ (LP)
lumbar puncture
Is there a pump in the CSF?
no - the arachnoid villi seem to push in and out of the sinus space to encourage movement
Dystonia is the
extended muscle contraction - permanently slouching down for Parkinson’s patients
One of the problems of _’s disease treatment is adequately getting dopamine (which it lacks) into their system due to the blood-brain barrier - it does not readily cross, and therefore alleviate symptoms
Parkinson’s
L-dopa works and is converted into dopamine once in the system
Treating the peripheral _ receptors without crossing the blood-brain barrier is the benefit of newer types of _ drugs
antihistamine
The myelinated axons in the _ are called tracts, whereas those in the _ are called nerves
CNS;
PNS
In grey matter, functional halves that are _ deal with sensory functions whereas those that are _ deal with motor functions
dorsal;
ventral
In ascending tracts from the spinal cord, the …acts as the relay of information that contralaterally moves from one side of the body to the other side of the brain. This explains why your right side of your brain picks up pain on your left side, and vice-versa. It then moves up to the thalamus, and remains on the same side of the brain’s cortex
medulla oblongata
Motor cortex sends commands down descending tracts down to the medulla oblongata where it moves contralaterally to the _ pyramids, where it goes down further to the spinal cord where the efferent nerves cause contraction in the skeletal muscle. Note some also go down the _ pyramid tract at the same time, which converges with the other tract to cause skeletal muscle movement
lateral;
anterior
The thin, convoluted layer of grey matter in the cerebrum is the _ _
cerebral cortex
The outermost portion of cerebrum is the _ _
cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is the highest level of neural processing, and is associated with:
- perception of environment
- formulation of ideas
- …
- command of body movement
- complex integrating centre
recall of past events
Missing cranial nerve:
Terminal - 0
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
_?
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12
Trochlear
Missing cranial nerve:
Terminal - 0
Olfactory - 1
Optic - 2
Oculomotor - 3
Trochlear - 4
Trigeminal - 5
Abducens - 6
Facial - 7
_
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12
vestibulocochlear
Missing cranial nerve:
Terminal - 0
Olfactory - 1
Optic - 2
_
Trochlear - 4
Trigeminal - 5
Abducens - 6
Facial - 7
Vestibulocochlear - 8
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12
oculomotor - 3
Circadian rhythm is governed by a neuronal _ with near 24-hour period
oscillator
Circadian rhythm is entrained to exact day-night cycle by _ input from ganglion cells with melanopsin
retinal
melanopsin is the sensor for day or night (detects light then assumes it is day); peak absorbence is in the green or blue part of the system (note that blue light will keep you up!)
Retinal projection for circadian rhythm goes to the:
- _ nucleus (SCN)
- pretectal area to the sympathetic efferents then to the superior cervical ganglion, then to the PINEAL BODY
suprachiasmatic nucleus
cares about quantity, not quality of light (a lot or a little of light?)
T or F: the pineal body is two pieces that sits on top of the thalamus, and releases melatonin (sleep hormone)
false - it’s one piece, but otherwise everything’s true
Circadian modulation occurs for:
- hormone synthesis and secretion
- body temperature
- autonomic behaviours (e.g., feeding)
- _
- alertness
- sleep-wake cycle
mood!
how interesting that the time of day impacts it. I tend to be lowest in the evenings/early morning, whereas I’m the highest during the day…probably associated with light, too!
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is A PAIRED STRUCTURE on either side of the 3rd ventricle and situated on top of the _ _ of the hypothalamus, and acts as the ‘master clock’, relaying throughout the brain and down the brainstem
optic chiasm
think of the third ventricle as a long tube with the suprachiasmatic nuclei (2) flanking the bottom, atop a ‘table’ of the optic chiasm of the hypothalamaus
T or F: the suprachiasmatic nucleus’ action potentials are highest at night and lowest during the day
false - the opposite
it depends on light, therefore it is highest during the day and lowest at night
may have something to do with SAD?
The circadian rhythm depends on many inputs:
- retinal input
- pineal input (determines seasonality)
- _ activating systems (e.g. of which is _, a type of biogenic amine but not a catecholamine)
retinal activating systems (e.g., serotonin!)
If you are kept in a window-free environment for days at a time, will you maintain a circadian rhythm?
yes, but it may not be synced with the outdoors
Pineal bodies are activated by darkness/lightness
DARKNESS
Pineal bodies are activated by darkness and secretes the neuro-hormone/transmitter, melatonin for sleep induction
neuro-hormone
Melatonin secretion peaks at _ AM/PM, and has seasonal variations with higher secretion in the summer/winter
2 AM;
summer
Do humans tend to get seasonal variations?
not really, since we depend so much on artificial light
Even a single photon of _ light can negatively affect melatonin production
BLUE/GREEN
There are two centres for the sleep-wake cycle that mimic/oppose each other, making them mutually dependent/exclusive
oppose, therefore they are mutually exclusive;
the waking centre inhibits the sleep centre and vice-versa
The ‘sleep centre’ is located in the dorsal/ventral-lateral preoptic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus
VENTROlateral
- think of wind on both sides of a 4-poster bed encouraging sleep
The ventralateral preoptic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus is activated by:
1. circadian clock
2. sleep _
debt!
the sleep centre is impacted by either of those
The _ centre of the brain is the tuberomamillary nucleus histamine activating system: excitatory to brainstem activating systems
waking
Orexin is the neurotransmitter that acts to FACILITATE the histaminergic neurons of the _ centre
waking
orexin - think of gold, and golden light in the early hours, inspiring wakefulness
Orexinergic neurons are found in the dorsal/ventral hypothalamus, and are activated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus for the sleep-wake cycle
DORSAL hypothalamus;
it’s the wake centre of the brain, therefore it is on the opposite side of the hypothalamus (the sleep centre is on the VENTROlateral preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus)
If orexinergic neurons are lost, then you tend to … [sleep-wake cycle]
fall asleep quickly, i.e., narcolepsy
The _ rhythm cycles through the various stages of sleep
ultradian (approx 90 min)
Sleep _ is when you are completely immobile during REM sleep
atonia
Spinal motor neurons are de/hyperpolarized up to 10 mV during sleep by inhibitory reticulospinal system from the pons, creating atonia/sleep immobility during REM sleep
hyperpolarized
Un/associated learning involves 2 or more stimuli, whereas un/associated learning involves habituation or sensitization to stimuli
associative;
unassociative
Which root of the spinal cord receives sensory info and which root transmits motor info?
a. ventral root: motor; dorsal root: sensory
b. dorsal root: motor; ventral root: sensory
c. medial root: motor; ventral root: sensory
d. dorsal root: motor; medial root: sensory
a. ventral root: motor; dorsal root: sensory
What is the region of the cerebral cortex responsible for the sense of touch?
a. parietal lobe
b. temporal
c. occipital
d. frontal
a. parietal lobe
What are the neurons in the reflex arc that bring the information in from the sensory receptor and then out from the integration center to the effector organ?
a. in: afferent; out: efferent
b. in: efferent; out: afferent
c. in: motor; out: afferent
d. in: motor; out: efferent
a. in: afferent; out: efferent
What are the two areas of the association cortex that are completely devoted to language?
a. Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area
b. lingual area and phonetical area
c. Saussure’s area and Sapir’s area
d. Nordquist’s area and Chomsky’s area
a. Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep exhibits fast, low-amplitude waves like those occurring when a person is awake. What is the ranking from hardest to easiest to wake someone from REM and the different stages of slow-wave sleep (SWS)?
a. REM, then SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1
b. REM, then SWS Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4
c. SWS Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, then REM
d. SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1, then REM
a. REM, then SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1
Which is an example of the difference between the use of procedural memory (implicit memory) and declarative memory (explicit memory)?
a. shooting a basketball (procedural) and knowing the rules of basketball (declarative)
b. riding a bicycle (declarative) and talking (procedural)
c. riding a bicycle (procedural) and talking (declarative)
d. shooting a basketball (declarative) and knowing the rules of basketball (procedural)
a. shooting a basketball (procedural) and knowing the rules of basketball (declarative)
If someone cannot move his or her left hand following a stroke, which part of the brain was likely affected by the stroke?
a. right frontal lobe
b. left parietal lobe
c. right parietal lobe
d. left frontal lobe
a. right frontal lobe
(primary motor cortex, whereas right parietal lobe is primary sensory cortex)
