Item 6

Question 1

The _NS is ultimately responsible for everything we perceive, do, feel and think

Answer 1

CNS

Question 2

The CNS contains approx 100 _ neurons and 100 _ synapses, all contained within the brain and spinal cord

Answer 2

billion (10^11)
trillion (10^14)

Question 3

CNS is protected by
glial cells
_
connective tissue
cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 3

bone (the skull!)

Question 4

_% of the CNS is composed of glial cells (or neuroglia)

Answer 4

75 - 90

Question 5

Glial cells are un_, and support neurons through neural communication. Humans have the most glial cells of any organism (highest on the evolutionary chain)

Answer 5

UNexcitable

Question 6

Five types of glial cells:
astrocytes
_
Schwann cells
oligodendrocytes
ependymal

Answer 6

microglia

Question 7

_ are the most diverse and numerous of glial cells, surrounding neurons with 20 nm gaps between that do not overlap another

Answer 7

astrocytes - sim to stars in the universe?

Question 8

Astrocytes form a structural and functional link between neurons and non-nervous tissue and _ fluid

Answer 8

extracellular fluid

Question 9

Astrocytes DIRECT THE DEVELOPMENT of special _ that restrict the movement of certain molecules between blood and the CNS, called the blood-brain barrier

Answer 9

capillaries

Question 10

Astrocytes guide developing neurons, esp _, to their correct destination and regulate the development and maintenance of synapses

Answer 10

neurites

Question 11

T or F: astrocytes may support the regeneration of damaged axons

Answer 11

true - astros help axons!

Question 12

Astrocytes help the _cellular enviro of neurons and in maintaining normal potassium levels in the _cellular [same] environment. This also means they help remove certain neurotransmitters in the interstitial environment between synapses

Answer 12

EXTRAcellular (around the neurons - esp at synapses)

Question 13

In efferent neurons, are they covered in oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells?

Answer 13

Efferent axons begin in the CNS, so they have oligodendrocytes initially, but when in the PNS they only have Schwann cells

Question 14

High levels of _ are toxic and contribute to the spread of neurological damage during a stroke or other types of brain damage

Answer 14

glutamate

yet it’s crucial for long-term potentiation. Go figure

Question 15

Astrocytes synthesize glutam_, which is then released into the interstitial fluid and picked up by other neurons to form glutam_, an excitatory neurotransmitter

Answer 15

Glutamine;
Glutamate

Question 16

The gap between synapses is considered _ space

Answer 16

interstitial

Question 17

Astrocytes can store _, which can be broken down to lactate; the lactate is then transported to neurons where it serves as an important energy source for active areas of the brain

Answer 17

lactate / orig lactic acid??

Question 18

T or F: microglia are the body’s way to protect neurons from toxic substances

Answer 18

false - microglia and astrocytes do. Astrocytes protect neurons from oxidative stress and help remove cellular debris

Question 19

Glial cells may contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as
multiple sclerosis
_ disease
Parkinson’s disease

Answer 19

Alzheimer’s

Question 20

MS results from the loss of myelin in the CNS. It is an autoimmune disease, meaning that the immune system attacks a part of the body, in this case, _ (myelin-type cells). The loss of myelin (and some axons) in the CNS slows down or stops communication along certain neural pathways

Answer 20

oligodendrocytes (if it was PNS it would be Schwann cells, but it’s not)

Question 21

Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the loss of cholinergic neurons in certain brain areas and the replacement of the lost neurons with scar tissue called plaques. During the degeneration of cholinergic neurons, a_ and _ become overly active. These types of cells release inflammatory chemicals that enhance further de- generation of cholinergic neurons. Thus a vicious cycle takes place.

Answer 21

astrocytes and microglia

Question 22

Early signs of Alzheimer’s disease include
loss of memory and confusion
…
loss of communication skills
decrease in cognitive functions

Answer 22

motor dysfunction

Question 23

Early stages of _ disease may be treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (they prevent the enzymes from dissolving acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft)

Answer 23

Alzheimer’s

Question 24

Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disease involving the loss of dopaminergic neurons. As in Alzheimer’s disease, glial cells are thought to enhance neural degeneration through the pro- duction of _ agents.

Answer 24

inflammatory -

Question 25

In Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, glial cells produce inflammatory agents to enhance neural degeneration, whereas in MS…

Answer 25

oligodendrocytes aren’t able to create myelin - they are not part of the problem

Question 26

T or F: Alzheimer’s disease is associated with oligodendrocytes, MS with astrocytes and microglia, and Parkinson’s with glial cells in general

Answer 26

false - Parkinson’s are dealing with glial cells, but MS is a CNS-based disease that deals only with oligodendrocytes, whereas Alzheimer’s disease is with microglia and astrocytes

Question 27

_ disease main symptoms involves
- Tremor in hands, arms, legs, jaw, or head
- Muscle stiffness, where muscle remains contracted for a long time
- Slowness of movement
- Impaired balance and coordination, sometimes leading to falls

Answer 27

Parkinson’s disease

Question 28

Of MS, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, which is associated with blurred vision?

Answer 28

MS

Question 29

_ protect the central nervous system from foreign matter, such as bacteria and remnants of dead or injured cells. They carry out this function through phagocytosis and the release of cytokines in a manner similar to certain blood cells. _ [same] also protect neurons against oxidative stress

Answer 29

microglia

Question 30

T or F: astrocytes and microglia can protect neurons from oxidative stress

Answer 30

true

Question 31

What serves as protection against impact between the skull or spine with the soft nervous tissue within?
_
cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 31

meninges

Question 32

The meninges are _ [number] connective tissue membranes that separate the soft tissue of the CNS from the surrounding bone

Answer 32

three

Question 33

The cranium is the name for the

Answer 33

skull

Question 34

The vertebral column is another name for the

Answer 34

spine

Question 35

The order of the three meninges surrounding the soft tissue of CNS going outward (i.e., closest to the brain to farther from the brain are:
arachnoid mater
dura mater
pia mater

Answer 35

pia mater
arachnoid mater
dura mater

Question 36

T or F: there isn’t space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater

Answer 36

true - if a blood vessel passing through the dura ruptures, then blood can accumulate in both maters

Question 37

if a blood vessel passing through the dura ruptures, then blood can accumulate in both maters, this is called a subdural _

Answer 37

hematoma

Question 38

The _ mater contains a weblike structure

Answer 38

arachnoid

Question 39

The _ mater is closest to the bone

Answer 39

dura - it is hard and durable (tough, fibrous tissue), and has the consistency of leather

Question 40

T or F: there is no space between the arachnoid and pia maters

Answer 40

false - it is the subarachnoid space

Question 41

Where is cerebrospinal fluid contained within the CNS?

Answer 41

in the meninges, specifically between the pia mater and arachnoid mater, coined the subarachnoid space

Question 42

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, watery fluid that bathes the CNS; it is similar (but not identical) in composition to _

Answer 42

plasma

Question 43

T or F: CSF completely surrounds the CNS and is also otherwise found filling a number of cavities located within the brain

Answer 43

false - it is also found within the spinal cord

Question 44

The brain contains _ ventricles/cavities that are continuous with one another

Answer 44

four

Question 45

The two C-shaped ventricles are called _ ventricles

Answer 45

lateral - they flank each other

kinda look like fallopian tubes

Question 46

The two C-shaped lateral ventricles are connected in the middle with a third ventricle by the interventricular f_

Answer 46

foramen
kinda like the opening to the uterus (in shape)

Question 47

The third ventricle (in the middle of the underside of the brain) is connected to the fourth ventricle by the cerebral _

Answer 47

aqueduct
(sim to the vagina in shape, and this and the lower fourth ventricle looks like an inverted Diva cup)

Question 48

The fourth ventricle is connected to the long line of fluid that goes into and throughout the spinal cord, namely the _ _ [composed of cerebrospinal fluid]

Answer 48

central canal

Question 49

The lining of the ventricles and central canal is composed of epithelial cells called _ cells

Answer 49

ependymal

Question 50

Vascular is another term for _ system

Answer 50

circulatory

Question 51

T or F: The vascularized lining of the ventricles forms a tissue called the choroid plexus, which consists of the pia mater, capillaries, and ependymal cells, and functions in the synthesis of CSF.

Answer 51

true

Question 52

T or F: the total volume of CSF is 125 - 150 mL, and the choroid plexus recycles 400 - 500 mL three times per day

Answer 52

true

Question 53

As CSF is produced, it circulates through the ventricular system and enters the subarachnoid space through openings of the _ ventricle

Answer 53

fourth ventricle - the one closest to the spinal cord

Question 54

The CSF in the subarachnoid space is eventually reabsorbed into venous blood through special struc- tures in the arachnoid mater called arachnoid v_ located at the top of the brain

Answer 54

villi (singular: villus)

Question 55

Hydrocephalus occurs when an increase in cerebrospinal fluid causes the ventricles to become enlarged. Which structure increases CSF levels

Answer 55

Too much of this fluid is produced by the CHOROID PLEXUS or too little drainage of it occurs

Question 56

CSF has several functions in the brain:
shock absorber, allowing CNS to ‘float’ in it
the _ fluid that bathes neurons and glial cells, providing them with nutrients and removing waste products
contributes to the maintenance of normal ionic composition around neurons

Answer 56

interstitial fluid

Question 57

Which of the following statements about cells in the central nervous system is TRUE?

a. Astrocytes are considered glial cells but oligodendrocytes are not
b. Microglia function with astrocytes to protect neurons
c. There are more neurons than there are synapses
d. Astrocytes provide additional neurotransmitter at the synaptic cleft

Answer 57

b. Microglia function with astrocytes to protect neurons

Question 58

What is the correct order of physical support elements of the CNS, from the OUTside to the inside?

i) Pia mater

ii) Cranium

iii) Arachnoid mater

iv) Dura mater

a. iv, iii, ii, i

b. i, iii, ii, iv

c. i, ii, iii, iv

d. ii, iv, iii, i

Answer 58

d. ii, iv, iii, i
cranium - skull, NOT the brain
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater

Question 59

Which statement about the brain and central nervous system is CORRECT?

a. The brain consumes 20% of the body’s oxygen at rest

b. All of the statements are correct

c. The central nervous system receives 15% of the blood supply

d. The brain consumes 50% of the body’s glucose at rest

Answer 59

b. all of the statements are correct

Question 60

Which one of the following is NOT a lobe of the cerebral hemisphere?

a. occipital
b. cranial
c. temporal
d. parietal

Answer 60

b. cranial

Question 61

In the topographical organization of the motor cortex…

a. The fingers occupy a larger area than the neck

b. The tongue occupies a larger area than the hand

c.The eye occupies a larger area than the mouth

d. The face occupies a smaller area than the trunk

Answer 61

a. The fingers occupy a larger area than the neck

dexterity is much more important than moving the head

Question 62

… is an event in which blood flow becomes interrupted because of a blocked or ruptured blood vessel in the brain

Answer 62

a stroke

Question 63

The CNS is particularly sensitive to interruptions in blood flow because cells in the CNS contain very little gl_ (com- pared to muscle and liver) [considered the stored version of the proceeding usable form] and, therefore, must obtain gl_ [the usable form that is stored as the first option] di- rectly from the blood

Answer 63

glycogen;
glucose

Question 64

T or F: most cells in the CNS have access to fatty acids for energy

Answer 64

false - no. where would fatty acids be? since they don’t, they require more glucose, hence needing 50% of all consumed

Question 65

When the meninges are around the brain they are called _, whereas around the spine they’re called _l

Answer 65

cranial meninges;
spinal meninges

Question 66

What is the space under the dura mater in the space between the cerebral hemispheres wherein arachnoid villi (sing villus) reabsorb CSF into venous blood?

Answer 66

sinus - it doesn’t make sense, but since the nose splits in two columns, then i’ll think of the sinus splitting the two hemispheres

it looks like a big blue lake (sinus) that is surrounded by land (dura mater) with peninsulas (arachnoid villi) that push out but are covered with a guard rail (arachnoid mater), and covered in a deck (subarachnoid space)

Question 67

In a metaphor for the top of the brain, what would be the missing items:

it looks like a big, blue lake shaped in an inverted triangle (sinus) that is surrounded by land (dura mater) with peninsulas (arachnoid villi) that push out but are covered with a guard rail (arachnoid mater), and covered in a deck (_ _ )

Answer 67

subarachnoid space

Question 68

Taking a dorsal view is viewing a section from the _

Answer 68

bottom

Question 69

Plasma is typically higher in glucose, proteins, potassium and calcium, but not… [2 ions]

Answer 69

sodium and chloride

Question 70

The brain and spinal cord cannot obtain energy from _ _ during periods of reduced oxygen depletion, therefore an uninterrupted supply of oxygen and glucose is required to stay alive

Answer 70

anaerobic metabolism

Question 71

During starvation or _ _, CNS tissues can use ketones to supply up to 2/3 of its needs, despite being a process of lipid catabolism

Answer 71

diabetes mellitus - issues with glucose

Question 72

The exchange of oxygen, glucose and other materials between blood and CNS cells occurs across the walls of _

Answer 72

capillaries

Question 73

T or F: choroid plexus is found in every ventricle

Answer 73

true - it’s a wee thing, but it is the TISSUE that surrounds the ventricles, prime for circulation, and which produces CSF

Question 74

The capillary walls are composed of a single layer of _l cells, a type of epithelial cell

Answer 74

endothelial
- endo-within the tissue

Question 75

Much like along cell walls, hydro_ molecules diffuse across membranes of endothelial cells (lining the vesicles, i.e., choroid plexus, i.e., maker of CSF), whereas hydro_ molecules diffuse through relatively large gaps (pores) between the endothelial cells

Answer 75

hydrophobic (loves fat - easily moves within membrane);
hydrophilic (hates fat - needs pores to move through, otherwise repelled by fatty membrane)

Question 76

_cytosis involves the ACTIVE movement of a macromolecule such as a protein across an endothelial cell by endocytosis into the cell followed by exocytosis out of the cell

Answer 76

transcytosis

Question 77

the movement of hydro_ molecules across capillary walls is restricted by the blood-brain barrier, the interstitial fluid in the CNS

Answer 77

hydrophilic - molecules that hate fat cannot move through the fatty membrane of the capillary walls to get into the blood-brain barrier

Question 78

What maintains the strict distinction of the blood-brain barrier, i.e., between the blood and CSF, and avoiding capillary pores for hydrophilic molecules to move in/out? _ junctions

Answer 78

tight junctions

Question 79

T or F: astrocytes develop and maintain tight junctions

Answer 79

false - astrocytes stimulate endothelial cells which then develop and maintain tight junctions - astrocytes are supportive, but don’t produce things

Question 80

How do select hydrophilic solutes passively move through the blood-brain barrier?

Answer 80

by carrier mediated transport, NOT by simple diffusion

Question 81

How do select hydrophobic molecules and gases move through the blood-brain barrier?

Answer 81

they move by simple diffusion

e.g., alcohol can move freely, which depresses CNS function by several mechanisms

Question 82

GLUT-_ carriers transport glucose across the blood-brain barrier

Answer 82

1 - not to be confused with GLUT-4 carriers which are found in membranes of most other cells

Question 83

Insulin actions in the CNS regulate …

Answer 83

food intake! not glucose metabolism, therefore it is considered a satiety hormone that decreases hunger

makes sense, with those having Type II diabetes with low insulin may overeat causing them to be obese

Question 84

T or F: grey matter in the CNSs composed of cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals

Answer 84

TRUE - and its axons are covered in myelin from oligodendrocytes which is considered the white matter

Question 85

Cerebral cortex is composed of a thin layer of _ matter that covers the brain, and beneath it is the cerebrum (fibers) which is composed of _ matter, and embedded within it is the nuclei which is composed of _ matter

Answer 85

TOP: grey - CEREBRAL CORTEX (6 LAYERS)
MIDDLE: white - CEREBRUM FIBRES
BOTTOM: grey - NUCLEI

what the hell, right? I mean, i thought things were more simple than this. suffice it to say, the brain is covered in grey white grey

Question 86

In the spinal cord, the white matter (fibers) is on the _side, and the grey matter is on the _side, opposite to the brain

Answer 86

outside;
inside

i mean, the spinal cord does look white with a grey ‘steak’ shape within it, so it’s opposite to the brain. what a joke

Question 87

_ fibers/tracts connect the cerebral cortex with lower levels of the brain or the spinal cord, with corticospinal tracts connecting regions of the cortex with grey matter in the spinal cord

Answer 87

projection

Question 88

T or F: association fibers connect one area of cerebral cortex to another area of the cortex on the same side of the brain, with the arcuate fasciculus being an example on the left lateral side. However, commissural fibers connect cortical regions on one side of the brain with corresponding cortical regions on the other side

Answer 88

true

associate on the same side, while you commiserate altogether, on both sides

Question 89

The arcuate fasciculus connects _ area and _ area

Answer 89

Broca’s and Wernicke’s

Question 90

Most of the _ fibers are found in the corpus callosum, which separates the two cerebral hemispheres

Answer 90

commissural

bringing the body public together (‘corpus’) allows them to commiserate (‘commissural’)

Question 91

Nuclei can also be called _ nuclei since they are found in smaller areas of grey matter embedded within the cortex

Answer 91

subcortical

NOT BASAL NUCLEI - A SPECIFIC STRUCTURE

Question 92

The _ _ is typically 44 cm long and ranges in diameter from 1 to 1.4 cm

Answer 92

spinal cord

Question 93

There are 31 _ _, with each pair exiting the vertebral column between two adjacent vertebrae

Answer 93

spinal nerves

Question 94

The spinal nerves (formed in pairs) ascending to descending are from this list:
cervical 8
lumbar 5
sacral 5
thoracic 12

Answer 94

cervical nerves
thoracic nerves
lumbar nerves
sacral nerves

Question 95

The cervical nerves emerge from the neck region, and there are _ pairs of them

Answer 95

8

how do i remember that? cervical has 8 letters

Question 96

The thoracic nerves emerge in the chest region and there are _ pairs of them

Answer 96

12

• the chest is the tallest part of the spine, so i just have to remember tall 12

Question 97

The lumbar nerves emerge in the region of the lower back and there are _ pairs of them

Answer 97

5

it’s a small part of the spine, and there are 5+1 letters in lumbar

Question 98

The sacral nerves emerge in the region of the tailbone or coccyx and there are _ pairs of them, and a single coccygeal nerve (C0) which emerges from the tip of the coccyx

Answer 98

5 pairs

sacral is 5 pairs + 1 coccygeal. I don’t know, I’ll just have to remember this shit

Question 99

Although spinal nerves emerge along the whole length of the vertebral column, the spinal cord itself extends for only two-thirds of the column’s length. Therefore, some of the spinal nerves actually travel _ within the vertebral column before exiting it.

Answer 99

downward

Question 100

In fact, the bottom third of the vertebral column contains individual nerves, but no spinal cord proper. Because the nerve bundle in this region resembles a horse’s tail, it is called the cauda _

Answer 100

equina

Question 101

When physicians administer drugs spinally (give an epidural) or take a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (perform a spinal tap), they do so in the _ _ region to avoid potential damage to the spinal cord itself

Answer 101

caudal equina - they are individual nerves, so their injury wouldn’t necessarily impact the spinal cord itself

Question 102

The numerous axons that travel within a single spinal nerve generally travel to adjacent regions of the body. Thus it is possible to map out the body’s surface into different sensory regions called d_s, each of which is served by a particular spinal nerve

Answer 102

dermatomes

Question 103

The _ is not mapped into dermatomes because it is innervated by cranial nerves, which emerge from the brain rather than from the spinal cord.

Answer 103

face

Question 104

The CI dermatome is not mapped because the first _ nerve does not provide sensory innervation of the skin.

Answer 104

cervical

Question 105

Numbness in the Tl dermatome on left right side would indicate damage to the first thoracic spinal nerve on the _ side, whereas numbness in the Tl dermatome and all lower dermatomes would indicate damage to the spinal cord between the levels of C8 and Tl

Answer 105

same

Question 106

The gray matter within the butterfly-shaped region in the interior of the spinal cord contains interneurons, cell bodies and dendrites of _erent neurons, and the axon terminals of _erent neurons

Answer 106

efferent;
afferent

I guess I just think of effector cell bodies and dendrites coming from the BRAIN ITSELF, when in actuality it’s within the spinal cord, which is still the CNS!

Question 107

The projection fibers are shown as _ing

Answer 107

crossing - as though from one portion of the brain to the contralateral side, which makes sense since injury to the left side of my brain will likely show difficulties on my right side

Question 108

A coronal section of the brain would separate…

Answer 108

the front from the back (like a headband)

Question 109

A midsagittal section of the brain would separate…

Answer 109

equally the left side from the right, much like the two hemispheres split down the middle

Question 110

There’s actually more vertebrae mass on the _ side of the body than the _

Answer 110

ventral (front) than the dorsal (posterior)

Question 111

The dorsal horn encompasses the _ half of the grey matter, whereas the ventral horn passes the _ half

Answer 111

posterior/back;
anterior/front

Question 112

Histology of the spinal cord is typically viewed with the _ horn at the top and the _ horn at the bottom

Answer 112

dorsal;
ventral

Question 113

Afferent fibers originate in the periphery as sensory receptors and terminate in the _ horn, where they synapse on interneurons or efferent neurons

Answer 113

dorsal

Question 114

The cell bodies of these afferent fibers are not located in the spinal cord itself; they are located outside the spinal cord in clusters called _ _ _

Answer 114

dorsal root ganglia (sing ganglion)

what the hell. I thought they originate closer to the receptors, but I guess not. so they’re technically not in the spinal cord, but very close to it

Question 115

Numbness in C6 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]

Answer 115

thumb, top of the forearms, tops of the shoulders

Question 116

Numbness in C7 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]

Answer 116

pointer or middle fingers/palm close to the thumb, back of the arms and along the upper back

Question 117

Numbness in C8 dermatome would be found in the _ [body part]

Answer 117

ring or pinkie fingers or the palm near the pinkie

Question 118

C3 and C4 dermatomes are separated by the _ [body part]

Answer 118

clavicle

Question 119

The nipples are typically found close to dermatome _[letter] _[number]

Answer 119

T4

T4 slips are used at tax time which are like putting on unwanted nipple clamps

Question 120

The belly button is typically found close to dermatome _[letter] _[number]

Answer 120

T10

I don’t know. the belly button is a ring that looks like a zero, so T10

Question 121

S2 - 4 dermatomes would deal with issues with the …, whereas S5 would be issues with the _

Answer 121

genitals [male and female?];
anus

Question 122

If I had numbness in my big toe or next 2 toes, top of the foot (internal) or my shins I would suspect the physican would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome

Answer 122

L5

Question 123

If my ankles, calves, or the outer back of my legs were numb, I’d suspect the physician would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome

Answer 123

S1

Question 124

If I had numbness at the top of my head, I would suspect the physician would be checking out my _[letter] _[number] dermatome

Answer 124

trick question! the face, ears and top of the head are mapped by the cranial nerves which are found closer to the brain

Question 125

Some people with peripheral neurological damage may lose sensory function from a specific spinal level, but not motor function. Where must the damage have occurred?

Answer 125

The dorsal root or dorsal root ganglion— the only sites where motor and sensory axons travel in distinct paths

Question 126

The cell bodies of _fferent neurons are located in the spinal cord. Efferent neurons originate in the _al horn and travel to the periphery, where they form synapses with skeletal muscles

Answer 126

afferent;
ventral

Question 127

In the _ and upper _ regions of the spinal cord, there is another area of gray matter called the lateral horn, or intermediolateral cell column, which is located between the dorsal and ventral horns on either side

Answer 127

thoracic;
upper lumbar

Question 128

In the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord, there is another area of gray matter called the lateral horn, or intermediolateral cell column, which is located between the dorsal and ventral horns on either side. They contain the origins of efferent neurons of the _ nervous system

Answer 128

autonomic

Question 129

T or F: spinal nerves contain both afferent and efferent axons, so they’re actually a mix

Answer 129

true - they’re called mixed nerves

Question 130

_scending tracts transmit info from the spinal cord to the brain, whereas _scending tracts transmit info from the brain to the spinal cord. They are bilateral (each one is found on both sides of the spinal cord)

Answer 130

ascending (goes up):
descending (goes down)

Question 131

Descending tracts include the _ tracts that transmit motor commands to efferent neurons on both sides of the spinal cord, found on the lateral and anterior sides, and named as such:
_
Lateral _ tracts
Anterior _ tracts

Answer 131

pyramidal - creating a triangle
lateral pyramidal tracts (found near the dorsal horn)
anterior pyramid tracts (found near the ventral horn)

Question 132

Descending tracts include the pyramidal tracts (both lateral and anterior) and the v_ tract

Answer 132

vestibulospinal tract

Question 133

If it ain’t a pyramidal or vestibulospinal tract, then it is _scending

Answer 133

ascending
lateral pyramidal, anterior pyramidal and vestibulospinal tracts are all descending, whereas others are ascending

Question 134

Ascending tracts include the
d_ _ms
lateral spinothalamic tract
spinotectal tract
anterior spinothalamic tract

Answer 134

dorsal columns

Question 135

The ascending and descending tracts effectively link the _ nerves to the brain.

Answer 135

peripheral

Question 136

When afferent neurons are activated by a stimulus acting on a sensory receptor (for example, when a finger touches a thorn), action potentials travel along the nerve fiber from the sensory receptor to the axon terminal, usually in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The axon ter- minal releases a neurotransmitter that transmits the signal to an _ (or, in rare cases, directly to an efferent neuron). Some of these _s [repeated word] form the ascending tracts, which transmit the information to the brain so that perception of the stimulus can occur.

Answer 136

interneuron

Question 137

Controlling efferent neurons is not the only function that descending fibers perform, however. Some descending tracts modulate sensory information, such as _.

Answer 137

pain

Question 138

Analgesic systems are systems that block the perception of pain during periods of stress. These systems work by blocking synaptic transmission between a pain-transmitting _ neuron and interneurons in the spinal cord. By blocking the transmission of pain information to the brain, perception of a painful stimulus is prevented

Answer 138

afferent

Question 139

The brain consists of the
forebrain
cerebellum
_

Answer 139

brainstem

Question 140

The lateral spinothalamic tract is an ascending pathway that originates with sensory receptors in the periphery and travels up the spinal cord, eventually communicating sensory information to the _ and then to the cerebral cortex.

Answer 140

thalamus

Question 141

The spinothalamic tract moves to the _lateral side in the spinal cord

Answer 141

contralateral

Question 142

Both pyramidal tracts (lateral and anterior) originate in the primary _ cortex.

Answer 142

motor

Question 143

The lateral pyramidal tract crosses over in the _ [not pyramidal tracts] whereas the anterior pyramidal tract crosses over in the spinal cord. Both tracts terminate in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, where they communicate to motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle.

Answer 143

medullary pyramids

(medullary pyramids are found in the medulla oblongata)

Question 144

The forebrain includes the cerebrum and the diencephalon, which includes the thalamus and the _, each of which contains multiple small nuclei

Answer 144

hypothalamus

Question 145

The _ (derived from the Latin word for “little brain”) is bilaterally symmetrical, with an outer cortex and inner nuclei, similar to the forebrain.

Answer 145

cerebellum

Question 146

It is located inferior to the forebrain and dorsal or posterior to the brainstem.

Answer 146

The cerebellum

Question 147

The cerebellum functions in
motor coordination and balance,
providing feedback to motor sys- tems to ensure smooth movements of the _ and body

Answer 147

eyes

Question 148

The _ connects the forebrain and the cerebellum.

Answer 148

brainstem

Question 149

The brainstem includes the
midbrain
pons
_ _

Answer 149

medulla oblongata
(important for efferent axons along descending tracts, like the lateral pyramidal tracts)

Question 150

The parts of the brainstem from top to bottom are
medulla oblongata
midbrain
pons

Answer 150

midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata

Question 151

Although the spinal nerves are found in the spinal cord (and with them the dermathones), the cranial nerves (important for the face, ears and top of the head) are found in the _, apart from 2

Answer 151

brainstem

Question 152

Despite the name ‘cranial’ nerves, they are actually nerves of the _NS

Answer 152

PNS

Question 153

There are _ pairs of cranial nerves

Answer 153

12 pairs

Question 154

Of the 12 cranial nerves, _ are associated with sensory nerves, and 1 that is a motor nerve

Answer 154

3
olfactory (I - 1)
optic (II - 2)
vestibulocochlear (VIII - 8)

1
accessory (XI - 11)

Question 155

“Some say marry money, but my brother says big brains matter most” is an outdated (and no longer accurate) mnemonic for

Answer 155

the type of nerve class for the 12 cranial nerves

Question 156

“Oh oh oh to take a family vacation go Vegas after hours” is a mnemonic device for remembering…

Answer 156

the names of the 12 cranial nerves from 1 to 12

Question 157

“Oh oh oh to take a family vacation go Vegas after hours” is a mnemonic device for remembering the cranial nerve types. What differentiates the first two “oh”s, “vacation”, and “after”? (or cranial nerves 1, 2, 8 and 11)

Answer 157

they aren’t mixed nerves - 1, 2, 8 are sensory, 11 is motor

Question 158

_ (3) is a mixed nerve class that involves eye movements, proprioception, as well as accommodation and pupillary reflexes (more than the trochlear (4) nerve class

Answer 158

oculomotor

Question 159

Cranial nerves 2, 3, 4, and 6 are used for _ [body part]

Answer 159

eyes

2 optic
3 oculomotor
4 trochlear
6 abducens

Question 160

Cranial nerves 1 and 5 are used for _ [special sense; although they may overlap with others, but they share this one in common]

Answer 160

smell

1 olfactory
5 (trigeminal)

Question 161

Cranial nerves 5, 7, 9 and _ are needed for eating [both eating and swallowing]

Answer 161

12 hypoglossal

5 trigeminal
7 facial
9 glossopharyngeal

Question 162

Cranial nerve _ seems the only one associated wth hearing or equilibrium

Answer 162

8 vestibulocochlear

Question 163

Cranial nerves 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 are [I may be wrong!] used for _ [human ability]

Answer 163

talking

5 trigeminal
7 facial
9 glossopharyngeal
10 vagus
11 accessory
12 hypoglossal

Question 164

Contained within the brainstem, the r_ f_, a diffuse network of nuclei that plays roles in sleep-wake cycles
arousal of cerebral cortex
consciousness

Answer 164

reticular formation

Question 165

The cortex is thin, but actually is arranged in _ functionally distinct layers, their arrangement varying depending on the function of the particular cortical region

Answer 165

6

6 in the cortex

Question 166

The _ sulcus separates the frontal from the parietal lobe

Answer 166

central

it’s in the centre of the brain, and splits it from the front to the back so…central

Question 167

The lateral sulcus/Sylvian fissure separates the temporal lobe with the _ lobe

Answer 167

frontal

Question 168

The parietal lobal contains the primary _ cortex which is associated with processing somatic (body) sensory info assoc with somesthetic sensations and propioception

Answer 168

somatosensory

Question 169

_ception is awareness of muscle tensions and joint and limb positions

Answer 169

proprioception

Question 170

Somesthetic sensations are processed by the primary somatosensory complex, which are _ sensations

Answer 170

surface sensations such as touch, itch, temperature and pain

Question 171

Does proprioception have to do with pain?

Answer 171

no - nociception does

Question 172

The central sulcus separates the primary somatosensory complex in the parietal lobe and the _ _ cortex in the frontal lobe

Answer 172

primary motor cortex

Question 173

Does the frontal lobe contain areas for planning and language and personality?

Answer 173

yes, even though language is mostly dealt with on the left temporal side

Question 174

The motor _ and the sensory _ [same word] map body parts onto its cortical surface for which they correspond

Answer 174

homunculus; homunculus

Question 175

Certain areas of cortex called _ areas are involved in more complex processing that requires integrating different types of info

Answer 175

association areas

Question 176

T or F: everyone’s brain is dominant for a particular function on the same side

Answer 176

false - there are some who are flipped or otherwise different

Question 177

Left-handedness suggests the possibility of brain _ that is not absolute

Answer 177

lateralization

Question 178

The _ side of the body is associated with:
spatial orientation
creativity
face recognition
music
dream imagery
philosophy
intuition

Answer 178

right

Question 179

The _ side of the body is generally associated with:
logic and analytic reasoning
strong language capabilities
math skills

Answer 179

left

Question 180

What makes a person have a split-brain and for what purpose?

Answer 180

corpus callosum cut, often to treat epilepsy

Question 181

The more prominent subcortical nuclei are the _ nuclei which include the
caudate nucleus
globus pallidus
putamen

Answer 181

basal nuclei

it’s subcortical, meaning it’s in the gray matter beneath the white matter in the cortex (grey white grey, so the most interior part)

Question 182

The basal nuclei are notable for their role in modifying _t

Answer 182

movement

Question 183

The diencephalon is a part of the forebrain which includes the cerebrum. It is composed of the hypothalamus and thalamus. The thalamus is a cluster of nuclei that functions as a _ _

Answer 183

relay center

That’s why there are so many thalamo- pathways, because it filters so much sensory information, as well as provides feedback from the motor cortex (i.e., allows ascending and descending info relay)

Question 184

The thalamus is associated with
directing attention (afferent)
controlling _ (efferent)

Answer 184

movement

don’t get confused with the thalamic ability to control movement while the basal nuclei is associated with MODIFYING movement. what’s the difference? how the hell should I know? the thalamus is a midline structure (inferior to the cerebrum), whereas the basal ganglia are subcortical structures (still within the cerebrum), so subcortical structure/basal ganglia are exterior/superior to the thalamus and hypothalamus

Question 185

The hypothalamus is _ior to the thalamus and has many roles in regulating homeostasis by serving as a major link to the nervous and endocrine systems

Answer 185

inferior / away from the head / lower / caudal

therefore the thalamus would be superior/close to the head / higher / top

Question 186

The hypothalamus releases tropic hormones that regulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones and from the posterior pituitary, which include
antidiuretic hormone
_

Answer 186

oxytocin

Question 187

_ hormone regulates plasma volume and osmolarity and is released by the posterior pituitary but is controlled by the hypothalamus

Answer 187

antidiuretic

Question 188

hypothalamus affects behaviours including:
satiety and hunger and regulating eating behaviours
_
thermoregulation
emotions and associated behaviours, including stress
circadian rhythm

Answer 188

thirst and regulating drinking behaviours

Question 189

The hypothalamus exerts many of its responses through communication with the _ nervous system, the efferent branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls the inter- nal organs. The hypothalamus has both direct and indirect inputs

Answer 189

autonomic

Question 190

The s_c nucleus of the hypothalamus generates and regulates the circadian rhythm, a series of ENDOGENOUS fluctuations that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Answer 190

suprachiasmatic

Question 191

T or F: the pineal glad is an endocrine organ extending from the corpus callosum that secretes melatonin

Answer 191

false - it extends from the diencephalon

it’s related to circadian rhythms, much like the hypothalamus which is a part of the diencephalon

Question 192

The _ system is a diverse collection of brain areas that is found in all mammals and is associated with autonomic functions, motivation, memory, and emotions

Answer 192

limbic

Question 193

The limbic system includes the
_
- hippocampus
- fornix
- cingulate
- parahippocampal gyri
- portions of the basal nuclei, prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Answer 193

amygdala

Question 194

The limbic system, as one of the more “primitive” areas of our brain, is involved in basic drives. For example, one of the oldest regions of the brain (in terms of evolution) is the _, which is involved in aggression and fear.

Answer 194

amygdala

Question 195

The hippocampus, a major component of the limbic system, is involved in
learning
_

Answer 195

memory

Question 196

T or F: The glossopharyngeal system provides important sensory input to the limbic system, especially in lower mammalian species

Answer 196

false - the olfactory

although tasting and eating is all well and good, it smelling that is especially important for lower mammals

Question 197

T or F: The third ventricle goes through the centre of the subcortical gray matter, flanked by the thalamus (superior) and hypothalamus (inferior), and the basal nuclei (lateral)

Answer 197

true

Thank God. How the hell do people remember this crap. I should have stuck with an arts degree

Question 198

We typically analyse parts of the subcortical gray matter using a _ section, showing the interior of the brain from the anterior side

Answer 198

coronal - as if you were wearing a headband that cut through your brain and were looking at its interior from the front.

Morbid, huh?

Question 199

What is the order from superior to inferior in the subcortical gray matter?
Corpus callosum
lateral ventricle
caudate nucleus
choroid plexus
_
third ventricle
hypothalamus
amygdala

Answer 199

Corpus callosum
lateral ventricle
caudate nucleus
choroid plexus
thalamus
third ventricle
hypothalamus
amygdala

Question 200

What is the order of basal ganglia from lateral to interior in the subcortical gray matter?
globus pallidus (small and large)
putamen

Answer 200

putamen
globus pallidus larger
globus pallidus smaller

Question 201

The limbic system require a wide variety of structures including the:
cingulate gyrus
olfactory bulb
mammilary bodies of hypothalamus
fornix
mediodorsal nucleus of thalamus
_
amygdala

Answer 201

hippocampus

Question 202

Wernicke’s and Broca’s area are considered _ cortex

Answer 202

association

Question 203

Wernicke’s area is located in the posterior and superior portion of the _ lobe and the inferior _ [different] lobe

Answer 203

temporal;
parietal

Question 204

Broca’s area is found in the _ lobe

Answer 204

frontal

Question 205

T or F: Wernicke’s area is assoc with comprehending language in many forms, such as sound, written words, hand signals, and including hearing language

Answer 205

false - comprehending and everything else except but not hearing language

Question 206

Broca’s area is assoc with language _, the ability to speak or write words

Answer 206

expression

Question 207

Can a person with Wernicke’s aphasia speak words?

Answer 207

yes, but they appear jumbled, as if a ‘word salad’

Question 208

Damage to Broca’s area is assoc with an inability to…

Answer 208

make the correct sounds or write the correct words

Question 209

In deaf people, the right auditory cortex takes part in the processing of _ _

Answer 209

sign language. it is not found in the hearing community

Question 210

If a bilingual has a stroke, the language that will generally suffer the greatest deficit is the.. language

Answer 210

most recently learned language / later language

Question 211

If a bilingual has a stroke, if both languages were learned about the same time, then the two languages tend to be equally affected, and any recovery …

Answer 211

occurs simultaneously

Question 212

T or F: activity is absent during sleep

Answer 212

false - it is decreased, allowing movement in bed, as well as perception for being awakened by sensory stimuli such as sound or touch

Question 213

Some theories for sleep:
restorative
conservation of energy
…
facilitating storage of long-term memories
maintaining adequate immune system function

Answer 213

mentally practicing and refining adaptive behaviours during dreams

Question 214

Much of what we know about sleep and its effects on brain function comes from _graphy; a technique that uses electrodes affixed to the scalp to record electrical activity in the brain. Recordings of such activity, commonly known as brain waves, are called electro_grams (EEGs)

Answer 214

encephalography;
electroencephalograms

Question 215

Using EEGs, researcher have identified 2 kinds of sleep:
…
REM sleep

Answer 215

slow-wave sleep (SWS)

Question 216

Slow-wave sleep (SWS) is associated with multiple stages of _ frequency waves in EEG while REM is characterized with _ frequency waves in the EEG and periodic episodes of rapid eye movement

Answer 216

low;
high

Question 217

SWS is also called - sleep

Answer 217

non-REM sleep

makes it easy. it’s REM or it ain’t

Question 218

You tend to see medium to high amplitude wavelengths in … sleep

Answer 218

slow-wave sleep SWS

Question 219

You tend to see low amplitude wavelengths in … sleep

Answer 219

REM sleep

Question 220

Touch perception requires that sensory neurons from the skin transmit information to
a) The basal nuclei.
b) The somatosensory cortex.
c) The hypothalamus.
d) The limbic system.
e) The hippocampus.

Answer 220

b) The somatosensory cortex.

Question 221

Which of the meninges is closest to the neural tissue?
a) Dura mater
b) Arachnoid mater
c) Pia mater

Answer 221

c) Pia mater

Question 222

At rest; the brain accounts for how much of oxygen consumption within the body?
a) 2%
b) 5%
c) 20%
d) 40%
e) 50%

Answer 222

c) 20%

Question 223

Most of the fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres are located in the
a) Hippocampus.
b) Corpus callosum.
c) Corticospinal tract.
d) Central canal.
e) Cerebral ventricles

Answer 223

b) Corpus callosum.

Question 224

All spinal nerves contain
a) Afferent fibers.
b) Efferent fibers.
c) Both afferent and efferent fibers.
d) Neither afferent nor efferent fibers

Answer 224

c) Both afferent and efferent fibers.

Question 225

The origin of neurons of the corticospinal tract is the
a) Ventral horn of the spinal cord.
b) Somatosensory cortex
c) Primary motor cortex.
d) Cerebellum.
e) Thalamus

Answer 225

c) Primary motor cortex

NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH EFFERENT AXONS. UGH

Question 226

Which of the following is not a component of the limbic system?
a) Hippocampus
b) Cerebral cortex
c) Amygdala
d) Midbrain
e) Hypothalamus

Answer 226

d) Midbrain

Question 227

The circadian rhythm is established by which brain area?
a) Suprachiasmatic nucleus
b) Amygdala
c) Thalamus
d) Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex
e) Pons

Answer 227

a) Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Question 228

Parkinson’s disease is caused by loss of dopaminergic innervation of the
a) Cerebellum.
b) Basal nuclei.
c) Brainstem.
d) Primary motor cortex.
e) Thalamus.

Answer 228

b) Basal nuclei

Question 229

Which of the following reflexes is monosynaptic?
a) Withdrawal reflex
b) Crossed-extensor reflex
c) Muscle spindle stretch reflex
d) Both a and c
e) All of the above

Answer 229

c) Muscle spindle stretch reflex

Question 230

The area of the brain important for the maintenance of posture is the
a) Primary motor cortex.
b) Basal nuclei.
c) Brainstem.
d) Cerebellum.
e) Limbic system

Answer 230

c) Brainstem.

Question 231

Long-term potentiation is
a) A prolonged increase in synaptic activity at a given synapse.
b) The formation of new synapses.
c) Memory from more than 10 years ago.
d) Activated through the ascending reticular activating system.
e) All of the above.

Answer 231

a) A prolonged increase in synaptic activity at a given synapse.

Question 232

Where is cerebrospinal fluid synthesized?

Answer 232

choroid plexus

Question 233

Which type of junction between the endothelial cells of brain capillaries produces the blood-brain barrier?

Answer 233

tight junction

Question 234

Myelinated axons are found in (gray/ white) matter.

Answer 234

white

Question 235

Somatic efferents originate in the (dorsal/ ventral) horn of the spinal cord

Answer 235

ventral

Question 236

The major function of the (cerebrum/ cerebellum) is to coordinate body movements.

Answer 236

cerebellum

Question 237

Which three structures make up the brainstem?

Answer 237

midbrain, pons, medulla

Question 238

Which side of the brain is generally associated with creativity?

Answer 238

right

Question 239

What are the two main structures of the diencephalon?

Answer 239

thalamus.
hypothalamus

Question 240

What is the major sensory relay nucleus to the cortex?

Answer 240

thalamus

Question 241

The area of the brain most closely associated with fear is the

Answer 241

amygdala

Question 242

The _ system is associated with
emotions; learning; and memory

Answer 242

limbic

Question 243

The ability to recall information when taking physiology exams is an example of memory

Answer 243

declarative

Question 244

The afferents that activate reflex motor actions are different from those that activate ascending tracts to communicate a sensory input to the brain (true/false)

Answer 244

false

Question 245

During … sleep, muscle tone is present but diminished compared to the awake state. Spinal reflexes are still present and occasional bursts of in- voluntary activity occur every 10-20 minutes.

Answer 245

SWS/ non-REM / NREM sleep

Question 246

T or F: somnambulism (sleepwalking) is more likely to occur during the deeper stages of SWS than during lighter stages of SWS sleep and not at all during REM sleep

Answer 246

true

Question 247

T or F: Sleepwalking occurs in approximately 40% of adults but is rare in children

Answer 247

false - it’s the opposite! 40% of kids, rare in adults

Question 248

Talking in your sleep (somniloquy) also occurs during _

Answer 248

SWS/non-REM/NREM

Question 249

Brain activity _creases in most regions during SWS, and activity in the parasympathetic nervous system and certain brainstem structures increases

Answer 249

decreases

Question 250

During _ (sleep), a person may have recurring thoughts and may dream, but dreaming is sparse and thoughts and dreams tend to be more logical and less emotional compared to those occurring in _ (sleep)

Answer 250

SWS;
REM

Question 251

Snoring may occur during _ (sleep)

Answer 251

SWS

Question 252

Do rapid eye movements only occur during REM sleep?

Answer 252

no, they may still happen in SWS but not as likely

Question 253

The CNS site of induct in slow wave sleep (SWS) is the _, whereas for REM it is the pons

Answer 253

forebrain

Question 254

You would classify _ sleep as increased relative to rest while awake, whereas _ sleep is decreased relative to rest while awake. For the most part, _ is considered less active apart from EEG ratings

Answer 254

REM;
SWS;
SWS

Question 255

T or F: Body functions often have a sleep-wake cycle which may vary with the normal periods of wakefulness and sleep

Answer 255

true, incl body temperature, etc.

Question 256

The reticular formation of the brainstem, a diffuse network of nuclei that form the ascending reticular activating system, is critical in maintaining _. Its input projects to the cortex through relays in the diencephalon (thalamus and hypo-), and forebrain and “awakens” the cortex, making it more receptive to incoming signals from other pathways

Answer 256

wakefulness

Question 257

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is associated with the following neurotransmitters for wakefulness or sleepiness:
acetylcholine
norepinephrine / noradrenaline
_

Answer 257

dopamine

Question 258

T of F: the hypothalamus uses neurotransmitters such as histamine and norepinephrine to wake up the brain

Answer 258

false - histamine and OREXIN

Question 259

When you are awake and alert, an EEG shows a pattern of high- frequency, low-amplitude oscillations known as _ waves, which reflect electrical signals being generated by large numbers of neu- rons at different times. When you are awake but resting, the EEG shifts to a new pattern of lower- frequency, higher- amplitude waves known as _ waves

Answer 259

beta;
alpha

Question 260

_ waves in sleep during an EEG are similar to general audience noise in a stadium (not synchronized), whereas _ waves are similar to a crowd chanting (synchronized)

Answer 260

beta;
alpha

Question 261

In SWS, stage 1 sleep is considered ‘_’, whereas stage 4 sleep is considered ‘deep’

Answer 261

light - takes little to wake someone up
deep - takes a lot to wake someone up

Question 262

T or F: you are actually not asleep during stage 1 SWS sleep; you’re just drowsy

Answer 262

true

Question 263

The K-complexes seen in Figure 9.26c represent sleep spindles, which are periodic bursts of synchronized activity occurring in the cortex and thalamus. Sleep spindles commonly occur during sleep stages _ and _(#s)

Answer 263

2 and 3

Question 264

EEGs are measured in _ [amplitude] and frequencies are given in hertz (Hz) - they are mapped on a graph with time (seconds) on the x-axis and _ [first answer; amplitudes] starting at 0 on the y-axis

Answer 264

microvolts (uV)

Question 265

Why is REM considered paradoxical sleep?

Answer 265

because one has the highest arousal threshold during sleep (you can sleep through the loudest/withstand the most movement, etc.), yet you are more likely to awaken spontaneously

Question 266

When you first fall asleep, you go into stage 1 SWS. From there, you proceed through stages 2-4 in order. About an hour after sleep on- set, you go into stages _ through _ and then enter into your first period of REM sleep. At approximately 90-minute inter- vals, this pattern repeats a few times, except that you tend to spend less time in the deeper stages of SWS and more time in REM sleep as sleeping continues

Answer 266

4 to 2

so you go first into 1 (drowsy), then you go through 2 - 4 (takes about an hour)
then you backtrack from 4 to 2, and then go into REM (so prob 90 min from the start)
about every 90 min this pattern repeats itself: 2 - 4, 4 - 2, REM

Question 267

If more REM sleep occurs as time progresses, what is more likely to happen?

Answer 267

waking up spontaneously, although being able to sleep through almost anything during that time - does this suggest that it’s more dangerous for a fire alarm to go off around 5 or 6 in the morning? maybe

Question 268

Physiological effects from PTSD include:
increased responsiveness of the sympathetic nervous system
anxiety
…
decreased levels of serotonin in the brain

Answer 268

sleep disorders

Question 269

Psychological effects from PTSD include:
…
re-experiencing the traumatic event
avoidance (phobias) of remindings of the traumatic event

Answer 269

numbing of emotions

Question 270

The _ nervous system helps with the immediate adaptation to stress by increasing blood flow to the muscles and heart and by mobilizing energy stores

Answer 270

autonomic

Question 271

When a person is subjected to stress, the --_ axis becomes activated, causing cortisol release and activating the autonomic nervous system. Stress, which is defined as a strain or pressure on the body, comes in many forms, including exercise, changes in the environment, illness, injury, or fear. Cortisol helps the body adjust to stress by mobilizing energy stores, even at the expense of breaking down cell proteins to amino acids.

Answer 271

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Question 272

PTSD is best treated with …, such as paroxetine (Paxil) and sertraline (Zoloft)

Answer 272

serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Question 273

The _ hemisphere is more closely associated with negative emotions, whereas the _ with positive emotions

Answer 273

right;
left

I don’t know how I’d remember that. Laugh in your left brain and cry on your right brain? I dunno

Question 274

Dopaminergic systems (motivating/rewarding) occur in the _ _, which then project to the limbic system

Answer 274

basal ganglia

maybe…the BFG is so happy, and the basal ganglia brings dopamine

Question 275

_ learning requires making connections between 2 or more stimuli (e.g., salivation reflect in Pavlov’s dogs or using mnemonics to study something)

Answer 275

associative

Question 276

The opposite of sensitization (an increase in response to repeated stimulus) is _

Answer 276

habituation

e.g., if I hear repeatedly the noise of construction outside my window where I live (j’habite a proximite d’un chantier de construction)

Question 277

_ memory is the memory of learned MOTOR skills and behaviours

Answer 277

procedural

Question 278

Procedural memory (learned motor skills and behaviours) uses several brain areas including the
cerebellum
_ _
pons

Answer 278

basal nuclei

Question 279

Declarative memory (or _ memory) is the memory of learned experiences, such as facts and events and other things that can be stated verbally

Answer 279

explicit - you talk it out so it’s explicit

Question 280

Explicit/declarative memory involves brain areas like the _

Answer 280

hippocampus

Question 281

Working memory is also called …, which can be later consolidated and last for years or a lifetime

Answer 281

short-term memory

Question 282

The _ lobe is critical for short-term memory

Answer 282

the frontal lobe - if my concussion impacted my frontal lobe, then it makes sense why my short-term memory isn’t as strong

Question 283

The _ lobe and the hippocampus are necessary for long-term memory

Answer 283

temporal

Question 284

L_-_ _n is thought to be important in the con- solidation of long-term memory because it provides a mechanism whereby repetitive activity in particular neural pathways, such as might occur during repetition of a learned fact, can leave a more or less permanent “record” of itself once the activity has ceased

Answer 284

long-term potentiation (LTP)

Question 285

During long-term potentiation (LTP), when glutamate binds to NMDA receptors, _ channels open; when this molecule binds to AMPA receptors, _ channels open. When the presynaptic cell releases glutamate, it binds to _ receptors

Answer 285

calcium;
sodium;
BOTH!

Question 286

What is the ‘nemesis’ to creating long-term potentials when low to moderate levels of glutamate are present in the synaptic cleft? The answer is: the NMDA receptor channels (postsynaptic cell) have a blockage due to _ ions, which results in an EPSP that may or may not reach threshold for an action potential

Answer 286

magnesium;

Question 287

In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the following move into the cortex (association areas) to begin emotional responses:
_
sensory stimuli
thoughts

Answer 287

memory

Question 288

In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, once the cortex (association areas) integrate what they receive, they relay to the _ system. This system stimulates the hypothalamus, as well as incurs emotion.

Answer 288

limbic system

Question 289

In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the hypothalamus stimulates hormonal changes brought on by emotions as well as stimulates the _ to incur motor and/or autonomic responses

Answer 289

brainstem

Question 290

T or F: the limbic system incurs emotion which then impacts the cortex (association areas) further, by their own perception of that same emotion

Answer 290

true

cool, ain’t it? the cortex is self-reflecting, so we’d imagine that emotions as well as one’s perception of that same emotion is influential

Question 291

In the figure ‘The CNS structures involved in emotions’, the perception of emotion by the cortex (association areas) based on that same emotion that is incurred by the limbic system then influences the cortex by instituting responses to the brainstem, as well as _ responses in the body

Answer 291

motor

what’s interesting is that the cortex’ perception of emotion influences the motor cortex which then influences the brainstem. As you note, the brainstem if influenced by the limbic system which is the system that creates the emotion for which is perceived by the cortex (although remember the limbic system connects through the hypothalamus to the brainstem).
It’s a circuitous system, which explains the vast array of system integration within the body for simply expressing emotion

Question 292

Various structures of the brain are involved in producing emotions, both the “feeling” and the responses associated with them. Cortical association areas integrate thoughts, memory, and sensory information and communicate to the limbic system. The limbic system “creates” the emotion, but we are not aware of the emotion until it is transmitted back to the cortex for _.

Answer 292

perception

Question 293

The limbic system also communicates the emotion to the hypothalamus, which is responsible for BODILY responses coupled with the emotion, including _ changes (for example, adrenaline release), motor responses (for example, frowning), and autonomic responses (for example, changes in heart rate)

Answer 293

hormonal

Question 294

Aerobic exercise improves
whole-body metabolism
body weight
…

Answer 294

cardiovascular function

Question 295

Hypothalamic enzyme, AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) is said to enhance w_-_ m_

Answer 295

whole-body metabolism

Question 296

Activation of nociceptors in the viscera produce a type of pain called _ pain, such as a person having a heart attack who complains of pain in the left chest, upper arm and shoulder but not the heart itself.

Answer 296

referred

Question 297

Referred pain occurs because the second order-neurons that receive input from visceral _erents also receive input from somatic _erents. When a person has a heart attack, the brain interprets these signals as a somatic DISTURBANCE bc that is what such signals have meant in the past

Answer 297

afferents;
afferents

Question 298

The clinical map of referred pain show pain in the esophagus on the…

Answer 298

left part of the chest

Question 299

The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the heart as on…

Answer 299

the upper arm and shoulder leading to the neck

Question 300

The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the kidneys as on…

Answer 300

the lower abdomen

Question 301

The clinical map of referred pain shows pain in the appendix as on…

Answer 301

the bottom right-side of the abdomen

Question 302

Astrocytes develop connections between _ and non-_ tissue

Answer 302

nervous;
non-nervous

Question 303

_ possibly modulate synaptic activity

Answer 303

astrocytes

Question 304

Astrocytes maintain normal electrolyte composition of _ fluid in CNS, especially K+

Answer 304

interstitial

Question 305

T or F: astrocytes are assoc with glucose synthesis

Answer 305

false - with GLYCOGEN synthesis

Question 306

Microglia are considered the “_” of the CNS

Answer 306

soldiers; fight against toxic substances

Question 307

_ is the infection of the meninges that is either viral or bacterial and mimics flu-like symptoms

Answer 307

meningitis

Question 308

Can the brain membranes move and stretch?

Answer 308

yes, which allows the meninges to exist without being highly-compressible for physical support of the CNS

Question 309

Mouthguards are used to reduce shaking of the jaw, which is to protect athletes from causing disruption in the _ _ of the brainstem, which could cause loss of consciousness and even death

Answer 309

reticular formation

Question 310

CSF is secreted by _ cells of the choroid plexus

Answer 310

ependymal cells

a type of glial cell

Question 311

CSF circulates through _ to subarachnoid space

Answer 311

ventricles

Question 312

CSF is reabsorbed by _ _

Answer 312

arachnoid villi

Question 313

The CSF maintains a stable _ fluid environment

Answer 313

interstitial

Question 314

Plasma has a lower pH and potassium concentration to …, which has an otherwise similar makeup

Answer 314

CSF

plasma is portion of the blood WITHOUT cells

Question 315

_, the cerebral aqueduct and the central canal are filled with CSF

Answer 315

Ventricles

Question 316

A spinal tap is another name for a _ _ (LP)

Answer 316

lumbar puncture

Question 317

Is there a pump in the CSF?

Answer 317

no - the arachnoid villi seem to push in and out of the sinus space to encourage movement

Question 318

Dystonia is the

Answer 318

extended muscle contraction - permanently slouching down for Parkinson’s patients

Question 319

One of the problems of _’s disease treatment is adequately getting dopamine (which it lacks) into their system due to the blood-brain barrier - it does not readily cross, and therefore alleviate symptoms

Answer 319

Parkinson’s

L-dopa works and is converted into dopamine once in the system

Question 320

Treating the peripheral _ receptors without crossing the blood-brain barrier is the benefit of newer types of _ drugs

Answer 320

antihistamine

Question 321

The myelinated axons in the _ are called tracts, whereas those in the _ are called nerves

Answer 321

CNS;
PNS

Question 322

In grey matter, functional halves that are _ deal with sensory functions whereas those that are _ deal with motor functions

Answer 322

dorsal;
ventral

Question 323

In ascending tracts from the spinal cord, the …acts as the relay of information that contralaterally moves from one side of the body to the other side of the brain. This explains why your right side of your brain picks up pain on your left side, and vice-versa. It then moves up to the thalamus, and remains on the same side of the brain’s cortex

Answer 323

medulla oblongata

Question 324

Motor cortex sends commands down descending tracts down to the medulla oblongata where it moves contralaterally to the _ pyramids, where it goes down further to the spinal cord where the efferent nerves cause contraction in the skeletal muscle. Note some also go down the _ pyramid tract at the same time, which converges with the other tract to cause skeletal muscle movement

Answer 324

lateral;
anterior

Question 325

The thin, convoluted layer of grey matter in the cerebrum is the _ _

Answer 325

cerebral cortex

Question 326

The outermost portion of cerebrum is the _ _

Answer 326

cerebral cortex

Question 327

The cerebral cortex is the highest level of neural processing, and is associated with:
- perception of environment
- formulation of ideas
- …
- command of body movement
- complex integrating centre

Answer 327

recall of past events

Question 328

Missing cranial nerve:

Terminal - 0
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
_?
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12

Answer 328

Trochlear

Question 329

Missing cranial nerve:

Terminal - 0
Olfactory - 1
Optic - 2
Oculomotor - 3
Trochlear - 4
Trigeminal - 5
Abducens - 6
Facial - 7
_
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12

Answer 329

vestibulocochlear

Question 330

Missing cranial nerve:

Terminal - 0
Olfactory - 1
Optic - 2
_
Trochlear - 4
Trigeminal - 5
Abducens - 6
Facial - 7
Vestibulocochlear - 8
Glossal - 9
Vagus - 10
Accessory - 11 (motor)
Hypoglossal - 12

Answer 330

oculomotor - 3

Question 331

Circadian rhythm is governed by a neuronal _ with near 24-hour period

Answer 331

oscillator

Question 332

Circadian rhythm is entrained to exact day-night cycle by _ input from ganglion cells with melanopsin

Answer 332

retinal

melanopsin is the sensor for day or night (detects light then assumes it is day); peak absorbence is in the green or blue part of the system (note that blue light will keep you up!)

Question 333

Retinal projection for circadian rhythm goes to the:
- _ nucleus (SCN)
- pretectal area to the sympathetic efferents then to the superior cervical ganglion, then to the PINEAL BODY

Answer 333

suprachiasmatic nucleus

cares about quantity, not quality of light (a lot or a little of light?)

Question 334

T or F: the pineal body is two pieces that sits on top of the thalamus, and releases melatonin (sleep hormone)

Answer 334

false - it’s one piece, but otherwise everything’s true

Question 335

Circadian modulation occurs for:
- hormone synthesis and secretion
- body temperature
- autonomic behaviours (e.g., feeding)
- _
- alertness
- sleep-wake cycle

Answer 335

mood!

how interesting that the time of day impacts it. I tend to be lowest in the evenings/early morning, whereas I’m the highest during the day…probably associated with light, too!

Question 336

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is A PAIRED STRUCTURE on either side of the 3rd ventricle and situated on top of the _ _ of the hypothalamus, and acts as the ‘master clock’, relaying throughout the brain and down the brainstem

Answer 336

optic chiasm

think of the third ventricle as a long tube with the suprachiasmatic nuclei (2) flanking the bottom, atop a ‘table’ of the optic chiasm of the hypothalamaus

Question 337

T or F: the suprachiasmatic nucleus’ action potentials are highest at night and lowest during the day

Answer 337

false - the opposite

it depends on light, therefore it is highest during the day and lowest at night

may have something to do with SAD?

Question 338

The circadian rhythm depends on many inputs:
- retinal input
- pineal input (determines seasonality)
- _ activating systems (e.g. of which is _, a type of biogenic amine but not a catecholamine)

Answer 338

retinal activating systems (e.g., serotonin!)

Question 339

If you are kept in a window-free environment for days at a time, will you maintain a circadian rhythm?

Answer 339

yes, but it may not be synced with the outdoors

Question 340

Pineal bodies are activated by darkness/lightness

Answer 340

DARKNESS

Question 341

Pineal bodies are activated by darkness and secretes the neuro-hormone/transmitter, melatonin for sleep induction

Answer 341

neuro-hormone

Question 342

Melatonin secretion peaks at _ AM/PM, and has seasonal variations with higher secretion in the summer/winter

Answer 342

2 AM;
summer

Question 343

Do humans tend to get seasonal variations?

Answer 343

not really, since we depend so much on artificial light

Question 344

Even a single photon of _ light can negatively affect melatonin production

Answer 344

BLUE/GREEN

Question 345

There are two centres for the sleep-wake cycle that mimic/oppose each other, making them mutually dependent/exclusive

Answer 345

oppose, therefore they are mutually exclusive;
the waking centre inhibits the sleep centre and vice-versa

Question 346

The ‘sleep centre’ is located in the dorsal/ventral-lateral preoptic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus

Answer 346

VENTROlateral

• think of wind on both sides of a 4-poster bed encouraging sleep

Question 347

The ventralateral preoptic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus is activated by:
1. circadian clock
2. sleep _

Answer 347

debt!

the sleep centre is impacted by either of those

Question 348

The _ centre of the brain is the tuberomamillary nucleus histamine activating system: excitatory to brainstem activating systems

Answer 348

waking

Question 349

Orexin is the neurotransmitter that acts to FACILITATE the histaminergic neurons of the _ centre

Answer 349

waking

orexin - think of gold, and golden light in the early hours, inspiring wakefulness

Question 350

Orexinergic neurons are found in the dorsal/ventral hypothalamus, and are activated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus for the sleep-wake cycle

Answer 350

DORSAL hypothalamus;

it’s the wake centre of the brain, therefore it is on the opposite side of the hypothalamus (the sleep centre is on the VENTROlateral preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus)

Question 351

If orexinergic neurons are lost, then you tend to … [sleep-wake cycle]

Answer 351

fall asleep quickly, i.e., narcolepsy

Question 352

The _ rhythm cycles through the various stages of sleep

Answer 352

ultradian (approx 90 min)

Question 353

Sleep _ is when you are completely immobile during REM sleep

Answer 353

atonia

Question 354

Spinal motor neurons are de/hyperpolarized up to 10 mV during sleep by inhibitory reticulospinal system from the pons, creating atonia/sleep immobility during REM sleep

Answer 354

hyperpolarized

Question 355

Un/associated learning involves 2 or more stimuli, whereas un/associated learning involves habituation or sensitization to stimuli

Answer 355

associative;
unassociative

Question 356

Which root of the spinal cord receives sensory info and which root transmits motor info?

a. ventral root: motor; dorsal root: sensory
b. dorsal root: motor; ventral root: sensory
c. medial root: motor; ventral root: sensory
d. dorsal root: motor; medial root: sensory

Answer 356

a. ventral root: motor; dorsal root: sensory

Question 357

What is the region of the cerebral cortex responsible for the sense of touch?

a. parietal lobe
b. temporal
c. occipital
d. frontal

Answer 357

a. parietal lobe

Question 358

What are the neurons in the reflex arc that bring the information in from the sensory receptor and then out from the integration center to the effector organ?

a. in: afferent; out: efferent
b. in: efferent; out: afferent
c. in: motor; out: afferent
d. in: motor; out: efferent

Answer 358

a. in: afferent; out: efferent

Question 359

What are the two areas of the association cortex that are completely devoted to language?

a. Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area
b. lingual area and phonetical area
c. Saussure’s area and Sapir’s area
d. Nordquist’s area and Chomsky’s area

Answer 359

a. Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area

Question 360

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep exhibits fast, low-amplitude waves like those occurring when a person is awake. What is the ranking from hardest to easiest to wake someone from REM and the different stages of slow-wave sleep (SWS)?

a. REM, then SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1
b. REM, then SWS Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4
c. SWS Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, then REM
d. SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1, then REM

Answer 360

a. REM, then SWS Stages 4, 3, 2, and 1

Question 361

Which is an example of the difference between the use of procedural memory (implicit memory) and declarative memory (explicit memory)?

a. shooting a basketball (procedural) and knowing the rules of basketball (declarative)
b. riding a bicycle (declarative) and talking (procedural)
c. riding a bicycle (procedural) and talking (declarative)
d. shooting a basketball (declarative) and knowing the rules of basketball (procedural)

Answer 361

a. shooting a basketball (procedural) and knowing the rules of basketball (declarative)

Question 362

If someone cannot move his or her left hand following a stroke, which part of the brain was likely affected by the stroke?

a. right frontal lobe
b. left parietal lobe
c. right parietal lobe
d. left frontal lobe

Answer 362

a. right frontal lobe

(primary motor cortex, whereas right parietal lobe is primary sensory cortex)