Iran

Question 1

History of empires

Answer 1

 First Persian empire (550-330 BC)
* Monarchy, ruled by Shah
 Safavid dynasty (1502 -1736)
 Qajar dynasty (1794-1925)
* Iran was never colonized, but northern part came under strong Russian control, eastern part under Britain influence
* Colonial powers wanted to control Iranian oil production
* Came to end because of infighting

Question 2

1906 constitutional revolution

Answer 2

• Created the mahjlis (parliament)

Question 3

Pahlavi dynasty 1925-1979

Answer 3

 1925-1941 Reza Shah Pahlavi
 1941-1979 Mohammed Reza Pahlavi
* Authoritarian regime
 Authoritarianism, modernization, westernization
 Believed to be a conspiracy of the British to keep influence

Question 4

Seeds of revolution

Answer 4

VIII.Struggle between the PM and Shah, which was supported by the US (1953);
1953 Coup against Mossadeq
1963 White revolution
1973 anniversary of monarchy, Shah organizes big feast
1978 Large demonstrations (period of slow collapse 1953-1978)
Islamic revolution 1979
Shia islam

Question 5

1953 coup against Mossadeq

Answer 5

• Secular
• Nationalized oil productions, but western countries (USA etc) did need the oil and staged a coup and thus strengthening hate against the west
• Ayatollah Khomeini vervolgd door regime

Question 6

1963 White revolution

Answer 6

• Shah becomes oppressive and westernizes Iran
• Western powers always supported Iran
• Jimmy Carter criticizes the Shah because of human rights violations -> isolating Iran

Question 7

Islamic revolution

Answer 7

IX. Iranian Revolution and foundation of Islamic Republic of Iran lead by A. Khomeini (1979);
|
|—> Shah was obliged to flee the country (16 January, 1979);
|—> Popular hesitations on the nature of the new regime;
* Moves to Egypt where allies are in power
* All layers of the society are calling for revolution
 Conflict amongst organisations about who should be in power
 1 February Khomeini returns to Iran
 30 march Islamic republic referendum
* Should Iran become an Islamic republic?

Question 8

Shia Islam and religious cleavage

Answer 8

 Became guiding form of how the state of Iran was set up
 10-15% of Muslims are Shia, but the majority of Iran, Iraq, Bahrain is Shia
 Succession of prophet Mohammad decides what branch of Islam
 Twelve imams blood relationship to Mohammad
 The coming of the Mahdi (hidden Imam)
* Justice will be restored
 More centralized and hierarchical than Sunni Islam
 Legitimation of clerical rule, big debate about this among ayatollahs
- Reformists (separation of state and religion);
- Conservatives (“valayat-e faqih” - rule should be ensured by clerics, which is believed by
Ayatollahs);
- Competition between denominations (ethnic cleavage);

Question 9

Ethnic/centre-periphery cleavages

Answer 9

• Ethnic diversity despite Persian dominance;
• Regional entrenched in large parts;
• Partial overlap with religion:
  |—> Persians,Azeri, Lur - Shia;
  |—> Kurds, Baluchi - Sunni;
• Autonomy aspirations and revolts by Kurds;

Question 10

Regime of Iran

Answer 10

 Combination of theocratic and republican elements
* Legacy of Islamic revolution
 Theocracy
* Merger of religion and state
* Islamic law (sharia) is state law
* Velayat-e-faqih clergy rule as regent until Mahdi returns
* Clergy dominate state institutions
 But also
* Elections for state organs -> is already remarkable
* Semi presidential cabinet rule
* System of checks and balances, but religious institutions are superior

Question 11

Semi presidential system

Answer 11

• Directly elected president
• Directly elected parliament
• Cabinet member can be removed by no-confidence vote
• Chief justice and supreme court
• Sharia is main source of rulings

Question 12

Supplementary institutions

Answer 12

• Supreme leader – high ranking cleric
• Assembly of experts – elect supreme leader and is itself directly elected
• Guardian council – who can be able to be elected?
• Expediency council

Question 13

Supreme Leader

Answer 13

 Most powerful office in Iran – comparable to president or monarch
 Selected by assembly of experts
 Commander in chief
 Appoints judges
 Selects and fires ministers
 Can veto laws
 Can impeach president – together with parliament
 Selects 6 of 12 members of guardian council
 Appoints all members of expediency council
- Appoints main judges including chief justice

Question 14

Assembly of experts

Answer 14

 Selects and supervises supreme leader
* Role relation is vice versa, supreme leader controls assembly
 88 members – Islamic scholars
 Popularly elected for 8-year term (but candidates vetted by guardian council)
* Single member district system, plurality of votes needed

Question 15

Guardian council

Answer 15

 12 members, 6 selected by supreme leader, 6 by the Majlis
 Reviews legislation on compatibility with constitution and Islam
 Approves and vetoes candidates for president, assembly of experts , majlis
 Restricts competition for political offices
- 6 lawyers nominated by Chief-Justice to be approved by Majlis;

Question 16

Expediency council

Answer 16

 48 members, appointed by supreme leader
 Mediates between parliament and guardian council over legislative disputes, makes a final decision which cant be overturned
 In practice, it advises and supports supreme leader

Question 17

The president

Answer 17

 Directly elected
 Maximum of two 4 year terms
 Selects cabinet members
 Introduces legislations and budget
 Primarily; administration; implementing policies
 The president cannot
* Veto legislation
* Dissolve the legislature
* Control the military
- Head of gov

Question 18

Presidential elections

Answer 18

 Vetting and approval by guardian council
 2021 form 600 candidates, only 7 got approved
 Two-round runoff system, but there has only been once a second round in 2005. Absolute majority wins

Question 19

Parliament the majlis

Answer 19

 290 members, 4 year terms
 Candidates vetted by guardian council
 Limited powers, but recurrent conflicts with president
 Mixed single and multi member districts
 Qualified majority two round system (in first round 25% is enough)
- approves budget

Question 20

Judiciary the supreme court

Answer 20

Branched judiciary with civil, criminal and “revolutionary” branches;
- Overseen by Chief-Justice (appointed by Supreme Leader for five years);
- Supreme Court - highest court of appeal with different sections;
- Only clerics may serve as judges;

 Infighting -> cannot often act in an influential way

Question 21

Revolutionary guard

Answer 21

 Revolutionary guard; paramilitary force to defend the revolution, also has economic power and plays role in Iranian foreign policy, has political power
- official branch of military
 Basij; volunteer militia, public morale police, social control
* Exercise control about citizens, see if people behave according sharia and are branch of revolutionary guard

Question 22

Conservatists/principlists

Answer 22

 Loose coalition of traditional parties
 Theocratic, conservative, anti-western
 Dominate assembly of experts, guardian council, since 2020 also majlis
 Supported by supreme leader Khamenei
 Dominate lots of organisations

Question 23

Reformists

Answer 23

 Pro political and economic reforms
 International opening of Iran
 2000 second Khordad front (Khatami)
 2016-2017 the list of hope (Rouhani)
 Dominated majlis until 2020

Question 24

Class cleavage

Answer 24

• Between classes;
  |
  |—> Lower classes - party overlap with conservatism;
  |—> Upper classes - party overlap with reformism;
• Between state and market:
  |
  |—> Economic Liberalisation vs. Nationalisation;
  |—> Cross-cutting reformists vs. Conservatives;
• Also influences debates on international opening (especially with the economically liberal
  West);

Question 25

Majlis elections

Answer 25

• Two-round mixed-member system;
  |
  |—> Single-member districts: round one - plurality wins if at least 25%; round 2 - run-off between
  | 2 top candidates if no one reached 25%;
  |
  |—> Multi-member districts: similar system, but for each seat; voters cast for different candidates
  depending on the seat;
• 5 reserved seats (1 for Zoroastrians, 1 for Jews, 1 for Christians and 2 for Armenians);

Question 26

Assembly of experts election

Answer 26

• Single-member districts;
• Plurality wins the seat;
• Candidate centred election (sometimes endorsed by more than one party);

Question 27

Regime legitimation

Answer 27

• Combination of input and output legitimacy;
• Combination of divine and popular sovereignty;
• Controlled electoral theocracy;
• 1980s
  |—> Charisma of Khomeini;
  |—> Islamic fundamentalism thought;
  |—> Anti-American/Western rhetoric;
  |—> Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988);
  |—> Authoritarian control;
  Despite the large support for conservatives, many people are against the rule of this politicians
  and the lack of protection of civil rights they impose;

Question 28

Protest movements

Answer 28

In 2022, the Iranian guards aggressive behaviour (that lead to the death) of a woman that was not
wearing her head scarf correctly, lead to a number of protests;

Question 29

Populism in Iran

Answer 29

Populism: political discourse/ideology that tries to categorise society in two groups - people vs.
Establishment;
|
|—> Views the people as one entity with one will and consciousness;
|—> Claims to embody the people;
Particular stream of populism in some non-Western countries: people = marginalised periphery;
establishment = western imperialism;
|
|—>Populism in Iran:
- Prominent under M. Ahmadinejad (modest origins and traditionalist);
- Drawing on social inequalities - resonating with lower classes;
- Drawing on anti-wester sentiments - resonating with conservatives;
Paradox of Western interventionism (even though the Western countries try to stabilise the
political system, the country ends up taking this as a selfish/dominant act, which ends up harming
the country stability);