Introduction to practical linguistics Flashcards
What is the difference between tokens and types?
Tokens = how many words
Types = how many unique words
What is TTR?
Type token ratio
Type/token
What does a high TTR say?
Diverse vocabulary
What is a lexeme?
Basic lexical unit that comes in different forms
(eg: dog, dogs)
What is a mental lexicon?
List of words/phrases/idioms a person knows
Vocabulary is one of the most significant problems for which kinds of children?
Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN)
Which test looks at expressive language?
Naming selection / confrontation naming tests
“Tell me what this is”
Which test looks at receptive language?
Picture selection tests
“Can you point to the pen”
What are the 6 principles of selection for words and non-words?
Imageability
Familiarity/frequency
Age of acquisition
Length (phonemes/ syllables / spelling)
Neighbourhood density
Non words: sound/spelling regularity
What is imageability (principle of selection)?
Ensuring word isn’t abstract
How is the familiarity/frequency of words found out (principle of selection)?
TTR
Databases
Why is age of acquisition (principle of selection) important?
Words acquired earlier are more likely to be preserved in aphasia
What is neighbourhood density?
Number of words that differ from a word by one phoneme
What is an example of spelling/sound regularity for non-words?
Zeak = peak
Zeak ≠ break
What are pseudo words?
Not real but obey structural rules of English
(eg: Frex, not Frxe)
What are semantic fields?
Words linked in a mental lexicon in terms of their relatedness in meaning
What are 2 forms of evidence for semantic fields?
Speech errors (eg: fork for spoon)
Aphasia (selective impairments of categories eg: proper names)
What do you call words that belong to the same semantic field?
Semantic associates
What are sense relations?
Semantic relationships between words, directly or indirectly, that gives them meaning
What is synonomy?
Lexemes are synonyms if one can be substituted for the other (in context) without affecting the meaning of the sentence
Give an example of synonymy
He will FIX / REPAIR the road
Although it doesn’t really exist, what is absolute synonymy?
Lexemes have the same descriptive, expressive, and social meaning in all contexts
Give 2 example of absolute synonymy
Flannel : face cloth
Moan : whinge
What is hyponymy?
The relationship between a member of a set and the name of that set
What is the hyponym?
Set member (eg: pine, oak, willow)
What is the hypernym?
The set (eg: tree)
How do you test hyponymy?
1 way entailment test
Eg: all tigers are animals, but not all animals are tigers
How do clinical resources test hyponymy?
Semantic fluency tasks (eg: name as many items of clothing as you can)
Phonemic fluency tasks (eg: name as many words that start with P)
What are the 4 types of antonymy (opposition)?
Complementary antonyms
Gradable antonyms
Directional antonyms
Converses (relational antonyms)
What are complementary antonyms? Give an eg
Assertion of one entails denial of other (if A, not B)
Eg: dead : alive
What are gradable antonyms? Give eg
Relative, not absolute
Eg: old : young
Eg: hot, hotter, hottest
Can be modified by intensifiers (eg: very)
What are directional opposites? Give eg
Relative to a spatial/temporal reference point (real/imagined, moveable)
Eg: above : below
Eg: yesterday : tomorrow
What is a specific type of directional opposites?
Reversives: verb pairs
Eg: rise : fall
Eg: enter : leave
What are converses/relational antonyms? Give eg
One presupposes the other
Eg: mother : child
Eg: boss : employee
Can sometimes be from directional/reversive set, but can’t do one w/o other
Eg: buy : sell
Eg: borrow : lend
What is word decomposition?
Analysing complex word meanings into basic meaning components (semantic primes)
eg: Princess -> royal + female
What is a componential analysis?
Identifies semantic features of word
What are kinship terms?
Terms to refer to member of family
What are homonyms?
Words identical in pronounciation + spelling, but dif meaning
What are homographs?
Only ambiguous in spelling, distinct spoken form
What are homophones?
Identical pronunciation, distinct spelling
What is polysemy?
Different meanings of an ambiguous word somewhat related
What are morphemes?
Words broken down into smaller units of meaning
What is morphology?
Level of organisation below the word
What are the 2 types of morphemes?
Free
Bound
What are free morphemes?
Can occur on their own
What are bound morphemes?
Morphemes that can’t exist on their own, can only function as parts of words (affixes)
What are roots?
Type of morpheme that expresses main meaning of word
Can free roots stand alone?
Yes as free morphemes
Give an example of a bound root?
Struct:
(construct, structure)
What are compound words? Give an eg
When free morphemes combine
Windmill
What are the 3 types of affixes?
Prefix
Suffix
Infix (not found in English)
What are the 2 types of bound morphemes?
Derivational
Inflectional
What do inflectional morphemes do?
Express grammatical meaning
What are the 9 suffixes for inflectional morphemes (table)?
What do derivational morphemes do? Specifically prefixes and suffixes?
Make new words
Derivational prefixes: change meaning
Derivational suffixes: change word class
What are 4 examples of how derivational prefixes change meaning (table)?
What are 5 examples of how derivational suffixes change word class (table)?
What is the productivity of a morpheme?
Likelihood of it being applied to new roots to…
create new words (derivational)
create new word forms (inflectional) -> more productive, less selective
What are the 2 broad categories for parts of speech?
Function/ grammatical/ closed class words
Content/ lexical/ open class words
What are the 5 types of function/grammatical/closed class words?
Determiners
Pronouns
Prepositions
Auxiliary verbs
Conjunctions
What are the 4 types of content/lexical/open class words?
Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
What does it mean for a word to be open class?
Can continue to make new words (neologisms)
What is a practical reason to know the distinction between content and function word class?
Aphasia can affect one word class more seriously than others
What is an example of existing words belonging to >1 part of speech?
Fast: V + N + Adj + Adv
All four versions are different lexemes
How do you identify parts of speech?
Some memorisation: islands of reliability
Form based criteria: suffixes + distribution
What does heuristic mean in regards to parts of speech?
Rule of thumb that frequently gives right answer, but may be wrong and need to consider other information
What are some islands of reliability?
Prepositions: know a determiner + noun is coming
A An Your Its Our Their : always determiners
What is the definition of a noun?
Person, place, or thing
What are 2 common affixes for nouns?
-s (plural
-tion (
What is distributional evidence for nouns?
Preceded by determiners / prepositions
Often last word in sentence
Who/what test: noun answers it
eg: curiosity killed the cat. what killed the cat? curiosity
What is the purpose of determiners?
Serve to delimit the referent of the noun
What are the 3 different types of determiners?
Definite and indefinite articles (the, a)
Possessive determiners (eg: my, her, our) -> can also be pronouns
Demonstrative determiners (eg: this that, those) -> can also be pronouns
What is distributional evidence for determiners?
Precede nouns
Substitution test: use known determiner in place of X
eg: the cat ate THIS plant
the cat ate the plant
THIS is a determiner
eg: the cat at THIS
the cat ate the
THIS isn’t a determiner
What is the purpose of prepositions?
Express spatial/temporal relationship
What are some frequently used prepositions
What are the 2 types of verbs?
Lexical/ full/ main verbs
Auxiliary verbs
What is the definition of lexical/ full/ main verbs?
Doing words
What are suffixation evidence for lexical verbs?
-ise
-ed
-en
-ify
-s (BUT can also mark plural so be careful!)
What is distributional evidence for verbs?
Obligatory to make a good sentence
Preceded by noun
Cannot be preceded just by a determiner
What is the purpose of an auxiliary verb?
Provides grammatical support for lexical verbs?
What are the 2 types of auxiliary verbs?
Primary
Modal
What are the 3 primary auxiliary verbs?
To be
To have
To do
Copula verbs: can be full or auxiliary
- can be contractible (I’m)
What 4 things can model auxiliary verbs convey information about?
Likelihood
Probability
Possibility
Permissibility
What is distributional evidence for auxiliary verbs?
Occurs before the main verb
‘Not’ goes between Aux and V
Move / inserted to make questions
She is going. IS she going?
What is the definition of a pronoun?
Replacement/substitute for nouns
What are the 7 different types of pronouns?
Personal
Possessive
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Indefinite
Relative
Reflexive
What are the different parts of personal pronouns?
First/second/third person
Singular/plural
Subjective or objectice
Note: gender
What is anaphora?
Pronouns referring back to something mentioned earlier in the sentence
What does personal pronoun form depend on?
Gender of antecedent
Grammatical role
What is distributional evidence for possessive pronouns?
Ends sentence
eg: the bat is MINE
≠ pos determiners, can’t end sentence
eg: that is MY bat
What do demonstrative pronouns do?
Point to something
What do interrogative pronouns do?
Wh- words
For when full form isn’t known
eg: WHO will stop this madness
What are examples of indefinite pronouns?
No one
Someone
Anything
Everybody
What do relative pronouns do?
Use of wh-words to introduce (relative) clauses
eg: give it to the man WHO is wearing the hat
What are reflexive pronouns?
-self
eg: Eric sent a photo of himself
What is the purpose of adjectives?
Modifys noun
What is suffixation evidence for adjectives?
-ic
-ish
-ive
-ory
-y
(all very productive)
What is distributional evidence for adjectives?
Between determiner and noun
After verb
What is the order of adjectives?
Opinion
Size
Age
Shape
Colour
Origin
Material
Purpose
What is the purpose of adverbs?
Modify verbs / adjectives / other adverbs
What is suffixation evidence for adverbs?
Unreliable…
Often describe time/place/manner
Indicates degree/amount (eg: very, extremely, less)
What is the purpose of conjunctions?
Hooking up words + phrases + clauses
What are the 2 types of conjunctions?
Coordinating
Subordinating
What are coordinating conjunctions?
Links together chunks of the same kind
and
but
or
What are correlative conjunctions?
Pairs of words that connect 2 parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal
eg:
either/or
both/and
not only/but also
What are subordinating conjunctions?
Marks one chunk as lesser then/dependent on the other
What is sentence level meaning?
Whole > sum of parts
Different forms express different meanings
Different forms can express the same meaning
What is propositional meaning?
Who’s doing what to whom
ie- what does the whole thing mean
What are the 2 roles in sentence level meaning?
Semantic
Grammatical
What are the 7 semantic roles in sentence level meaning
Agent
Patient
Instrument
Beneficiary
Experiencer
Source
Goal
What is the agent?
Deliberately performs actions
LUCY baked cookies
What is the patient?
Receives/undergoes an action
Lucy baked COOKIES
What is the instrument?
What’s used to achieve the action
The cookies baked in the OVEN
What is the beneficiary?
Who receives something from the action
Lucy baked TRACI a cake
What is the experiencer?
Who receives emotional/sensory input
PATRICK enjoyed the cake
What is the source?
Starting point of an action
Harry came from THE STORE
What is the goal?
End point of an action
I returned HOME
What 2 roles does ‘verb’ play in linguistics?
POS label
Grammatical role
What is the English default word order?
Subject verb object (SVO)
- grammatical roles
How do semantic roles and grammatical roles interact?
Agents = subject : patients = object
→ active sentence
Patients = subject : agents = object
→ passive sentence
What type of word in English tells the grammatical form?
Personal pronouns- case marking
How is case marking with pronouns changing?
Before… who/whom
Now… who/who
What is reversibility?
Sometimes… lexical semantics of words fulfilling semantic roles allows you to swap them
- humans/animals can be agents or patients
Who can reversible passives cause problems for?
All typically developing young children
Some with languages difficulties (esp aphasia) -> learnt ability goes away
Why does reversible passives cause problems for certain groups?
Expectation/preference/default for subject = agent
eg: Lucy was kissed by Jane MISUNDERSTOOD AS Lucy kissed Jane
What are some examples of syntax and semantic contradiction?
The ugly woman was very beautiful
Every child got a prize except one
- no one argues with this, though maybe autistics?
What is syntactic ambiguity?
Uncertain on paper, but solved via speech
eg: Put the box on the table by the window in the kitchen
What is a phrase?
Word / string of words acting like a unit
Can be embedded within each other to form larger phrases
What are the 2 ways to test if words are a phrase?
Transposition: can it move around?
Substitution: one word substituted for group of words?
What are the 5 types of phrases?
Noun phrase (NP)
Prepositional phrase (PP)
Adjective phrase (AdjP)
Adverb phrase (AdvP)
Verb phrase (VP)
What are the 4 criteria for a noun phrase?
Head is a noun
Requires pre-modifying by Det (unless plural)
- can be pre-modified by embedded AdjP
- can be post-modified by PP
What are the 4 criteria for a prepositional phrase?
Head is a preposition
Requires post-modification by a NP
- can post-modify a NP (put the box on the table in the kitchen)
- can stand alone (put the box on the table)
→ note: links to syntactic ambiguity, can only understand from context / intonation / pausing
What are the 3 criteria for an adjective phrase?
Head is an adjective
- usually embedded in/modifies a NP
- can be pre-modified by Adv
What are the 3 criteria for an adverb phrase?
Head is an adverb
Modifies a verb
- can be pre-modified by Adv
Often, AdjP and AdvP are just…
1 word
What are the 3 criteria for a verb phrase?
Head is a verb
- may refer to Aux + Main V only
- may refer to verb and all that comes after it (predicate)
Which is the only type of phrase that cannot consist of just the head?
Prepositional phrase
What is a clause?
Phrases held together by a verb
- every clause has one VP
What functions do other phrase types (NP, AdjP, AdvP, PP) perform in a clause?
Subject
Object
Complement
Adverbial
What is a distinguisher between a complement and an adverbial?
Complement is often obligatory, adverbial often optional
How many main verbs are in a clause?
Exactly 1
- can be preceded by auxiliaries
note: sentences can contain >1 main verb
What are subjects as a function in a clause?
Gramatical function
Subject NPs replaced by subjective pronouns
Subject and verb must agree in number (verb in charge of sentence) :morphosyntax
eg: My cat likes dogs NOT my cat like dogs
eg: My cats like dogs NOT my cats likes dogs
What can happen to the subject when combining sentences?
Can be deleted
Eg: The flood wrecked the house. The flood carried off many cars.
The flood wrecked the house and [] carried off many cars.
What’s the difference between direct and indirect objects?
Direct: NPs + replaced by objective pronouns
- undergoes action expressed in verb
Indirect: NPs (replaced by objective pronouns) or PPs
- usually some benefit for IO
Give an example of sentences with direct and indirect objects
Traci baked Patrick(IO) some cookies (DO)
Traci baked him(IO) some cookies (DO)
Traci baked them(DO) for him(IO)
?Traci baked him them
? Traci gave them him, Traci gave him them
note: IO generally require some recourse to semantics…
What are 2 other words for subject complements?
Predicate nominatives
Predicate adjectives
What are complements for verbs?
Copular verbs (linking verbs)
Don’t denote actions just connects phrases
eg: Roy IS the new teacher
What are NP or AdjP or PP subject complements?
Refers to a property of the subject + verb is copular
eg: Roy is THE NEW TEACHER
eg: She seems HAPPY
eg: Charlotte appeared IN A STATE
What are object complements?
Verb already has a direct object
Phrase refers to same entity as DO/specifics property of DO
Give examples of object complements?
Godzilla crushed the town FLAT
He painted the ceiling BLUE
- often AdjP but can be NP, though very context dependent…
The voters elected him TREASURER
What are adverbials?
Info about direction/time/place/manner expressive by the verbal element
Grammatical function, not POS
Can be AdvP / NP / PP
Give an example of an AdvP fulfilling the adverbial function in a clause
He eats SLOWLY
Give an example of an NP fulfilling the adverbial function in a clause
We visited France LAST CHRISTMAS
Give an example of a PP fulfilling the adverbial function in a clause
I met him OUTSIDE THE BANK
How can you tell if the function is adverbial?
Ask where to/from / how / when with verb
Argument structure is another way of thinking about…
Sentence structure
What is argument structure?
Sentences can be thought of as subjects + predicates
subject: thing/person
predicate: action thing/person: undertakes/state its in/experience it undergoes (verb + everything after)
What 2 things do main verbs determine in argument structure?
The kind of subject
If other arguments are needed to make sentence grammatical (complements)
What is an example of verbs that allow some subjects but not others?
‘Ran’ only allows animate objects
‘Collapsed’ allows animate + inanimate
note: there is a close semantic relationship b/w subject & main verbs
What condition may mean that people can’t produce subjects in argument structure?
Agrammatism- this can limit communication
How can verbs be categorised?
According to the number + type of argument they select -> this is argument structure
What are the 6 types of argument structure?
Intransitive
Transitive/monotransitive
Ditransitive
Intensive
Complex transitive
Prepositional
What argument structure do intransitive verbs require?
Only 1 argument: subject
No complements
note: can add information, but verb doesn’t care if it’s there
Give 3 examples of intransitive verbs
Sigh
Snore
Die
What argument structure do transitive verbs require?
2 arguments: subject + complement (direct object)
Give 3 examples of transitive verbs
Criticise
Need
Love
What argument structure do ditransitive verbs require?
3 arguments: subject + 2 complements (direct & indirect object)
Give 3 examples of ditransitive verbs
Send
Promise
Lend
What are intensive verbs also known as?
Copular verbs
What argument structure do intensive verbs require?
2 arguments: subject + complement (subject complement)
Give 3 examples of intensive verbs
Looked
Seemed
To be
What argument structure do complex transitive verbs require?
3 arguments: subject + 2 complements (direct object + object complement)
Give 3 examples of complex transitive verbs
Made
Consider
Paint
What is the test to differentiate between ditransitive and complex transitive verbs?
Change sentence into ‘be’
eg: They made Arthur their spokesperson.
Arthur = their spokesperson = complex transitive
eg: They made Arthur a cake ≠ Arthur is a cake = ditransitive
What argument structure do prepositional verbs require?
2 arguments: subject + complement (adverbial)
Give 3 examples of prepositional verbs
Glance
Refer
Rely
Why is context important in argument structure?
Many verbs participate in >1 argument structure
eg: The boys ran. The boys ran the pub.
What is tense?
Point in time (in a continuum) something happened
- simple past
- simple present
note: can add aspect, but don’t
note: think inflectional morphemes (-s, -ed)
What is aspect?
Duration of activity, nuances in time
- continuing (progressive)
- completed (perfective)
How can children overgeneralise tense patterns?
Walk → walked
Go → goed. Will eventually learn and memorise ‘went’
Does present tense only express present time?
No
May be ongoing eg: “She LIKES fish”
May overlap with action in future, but still grammatically present tense eg: “She LEAVES today, tomorrow”
How is ‘future’ tense expressed in English?
Modals eg: will, be going to
How is aspect marked?
Auxiliaries for tense + participle forms of main verbs
note: present participle always takes -ing!
Change ‘barks’ into present progressive and ‘barked’ into past progressive
Barks → is barking
Barked → was barking
What is perfective aspect?
‘A kind of pastness’
Action completed by a particular point in time, continued up until this time
What does perfective aspect…
‘The dog has eaten all its food so we can go now’
tell over simple past…
‘The dog ate all its food so we can go now’
In order to go, dog has to have eaten all its food
How is perfective aspect marked?
Have auxiliary inflected for tense (has / had)
Past participle form of main verb (-ed / -en) but also irregular eg: swum
How are progressive and perfect aspect combined?
The dog HAS BEEN BARKING all night
Present perfect progressive
has = auxiliary for present tense
been = auxiliary as past participle marks perfective aspect alongside ‘has’
barking = present participle form of main verb marks progressive aspect
Put the verb ‘to break’ into present and past with…
- no progressive or perfect
- progressive aspect
- perfect aspect
- progressive and perfect aspect
What are the 3 voices?
Active
Middle
Passive
What is the syntactic and semantic criteria for active voice?
Syntactic
- not much, most verbs can be used in active voice, maybe not ‘rumour’
Semantic
- active if subject = agent
- usually agent = animate, patient = inanimate
What is the syntactic and semantic criteria for passive voice?
Syntactic
- passive ‘be’ must appear
- main verb in past participle
Semantic
- subject = recipient of action
- agents don’t have to appear, but may in a by-phrase
What is the syntactic and semantic criteria for middle voice?
Syntactic
- no direct object
- verb in active (not passive) form- no ‘be’, no past participle
Semantic
- subject is neither agent not patient
- subject controls the action
Why have different voices? (active/passive/middle)
Slight nuances…
Active allows control over narrative/focus/perspective
Passive presents action/situation and recipient, agent may not may expressed
Middle comments on quality/situations
What argument structure can passive/middle sentences not have?
Transitive
Compare the nuances of this situation in terms of voice
Active: I broke the vase
Passive: The vase was broken
Middle: The vase broke
What 2 categories are verbs divided into?
Finite
Non-finite
What are finite verbs?
Marked for tense + number/person (agrees with subject)
1 clause /finite verb
What are non-finite verbs?
Everything else
- imperatives
- infinitives
- participles
How is the finite verb ‘played’ marked in the sentence?
“Patrick and Lauren played football”
Marked for tense (-ed)
How is the finite verb ‘hides’ marked in the sentences?
“Their father hides the presents”
“I hide the presents”
Marked for agreement with subject
Hide +s
Hide +Ø
Which types of non-finite verbs form clauses?
Imperatives
Infinitives
What are imperatives?
Bare morphology (no agreement)
No tense distinction: can’t command in past
note: can use semantic/pragmatic knowledge to know eg: ‘take’ is a command
What is it called when a verb is preceded by ‘to’?
Infinitival to
not: not obligatory
note: article after ‘to’ = preposition, not verb
Where can infinitives appear?
Follow modals…
“He may GO to that party tonight”
Follow auxiliary/emphasising ‘do’
“He does RUN fast”
What do participles function as?
Not only mark aspect… used as adjectives!
Eg: They’re looking for a SMOKING gun
Eg: The ARRESTED men protested their innocence
What are the 2 types of clauses?
Main
Subordinate
What is coordination?
Joins 2 main clauses with coordinating conjunctions
Each clause could function independently
What is subordination
Subordinate clause is a constituent of main clause
What are the 3 functions of subordinate clauses?
Complement clause
Adverbial clause
Relative clause
What are complement clauses?
Arguments of the verb in the main clause
Are required!
Eg: I said that he is clever (finite)
Eg: I told him to be clever (non-finite)
What are adverbial clauses?
Adjuncts of main verb
Can be omitted
Can move around
Can also be non-finite
Eg: He stole the money while I slept
Eg: While I slept, he stole the money.
Eg: He stole the money to buy a new bike
What are relative clauses?
Clause that modifies noun
Doesn’t modify main clause
Not required
Often introduced by relative pronouns (which, that etc)
What are the 2 types of relative clauses?
Restrictive relative: picks out something different from others
Eg: The cat THAT APPEARED OUTSIDE MY WINDOW meowed loudly.
Non restrictive relative: extra information
Eg: That street, WHICH IS VERY PICTURESQUE, is where Mike lives.
What are the 3 clause types/moods?
Declarative
Imperative
Interrogative
What does a declarative mood describe?
A situation / state of the world
What is an imperative mood used for?
To give a command
Verb in NF imperative
What are the 2 questions asked in an interrogative mood?
Yes/no (polar)
- shows subject-verb inversion for aux/modal verbs
Wh- questions
What is the mood, voice, and argument structure for the following sentence?
The dog barked.
Declarative
Active
Intransitive
What is the mood, voice, and argument structure for the following sentence?
The workers demolished the wall.
Declarative
Active
Transitive
What is the mood, voice, and argument structure for the following sentence?
The wall was demolished by the workers.
Declarative
Passive
Intransitive
What is the mood, voice, and argument structure for the following sentence?
Was the room cleaned?
Interrogative
Passive
Intransitive
What is the mood, voice, and argument structure for the following sentence?
Someone open the gate!
Imperative
Active
Transitive
What are the 2 branches of linguistics?
Phonetics/phonology
What is syllable structure?
Must have a nucleus
Optional onset + coda
How many consonants are allowed in the onset?
Up to 3
eg: STRap, SPLit
How many consonants are allowed in the coda?
Up to 4
eg: gliMPST, siXTHS
What are 5 phonotactical constraints for the onset?
3-item onsets, first is /s/
/ŋ/ ≠ onsets
/v ð z ʒ/ ≠ onset clusters
/t d θ/ ≠ combine with /l/ in onsets
Nasals ≠ combine with stops in onsets
What is the phonotactical constraint for coda?
/h j w/ ≠ codas
(semi vowels)
Where is stress marked?
Beginning of a syllable (trust gut!)
What is the Principle of Maximal Onset?
If a consonant is equally as good in onset as in coda, put it in the onset
How is stress marked? How are syllables seperated?
Stress: `
Syllables: .
What is a phoneme?
Smallest unit of sound that makes a meaning difference in a language
What are minimal pairs?
Words that differ by only one sound and mean different things
What are allophones?
Variants of phonemes that do not make a meaning different
eg: allophones of /p/
[p^hɪn] [sp=ɪn]
if ‘h’ isn’t heard in pin, will register as ‘bin’
