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Personality and Individual Differences > Introduction > Flashcards

Introduction Flashcards

1
Q

What is personality?

A

The inner psychological experience of the self
Adjustable
Influences behaviour through internal stable patterns

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2
Q

What are lay definitions of personality?

A

Linked to implicit personality theory
Allow starting point for psych defnitions
Judged in social context

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3
Q

What are psychological definitions of personality?

A

According to characteristics
Allport: dynamic orgsnisation inside of psychological systems that create characteristic patterns of behaviour

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4
Q

What are the two approaches to studying personality?

A

Nomothetic and idiographic

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5
Q

What is the idiographic approach?

A

Focus on the individual for an unique understanding

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6
Q

What is the nomothetic approach?

A

Assumptions from set variables
Studies large groups

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7
Q

Who looked at the conceptualisation of individual differences?

A

Cooper and Lubinski

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8
Q

What did Cooper and Lubinski say?

A

To understand ID we have to address the issues (structural so the nature of people differ due to different factors and process model to give depth on how people differ

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9
Q

What are the factors when evaluating personality theories?

A

Description, explanation, empirical validity, testable concepts, comprehensiveness, parsimony, heuristic value and applied value

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10
Q

What is description?

A

A theory should bring to light behaviours

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11
Q

What is explanation?

A

Understanding the why

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12
Q

What is empirical validity?

A

Generation of prediction

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13
Q

What is testable concepts?

A

If they are be operationalised

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14
Q

What is parsimony?

A

Simple explanation

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15
Q

What is comprehensiveness?

A

Explanation of normal and abnormal behaviour

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16
Q

What is heuristic value?

A

Stimulation of interest

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17
Q

What is applied value?

A

Wider context and the usefulness

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18
Q

Who looked at state vs traits?

A

Steyer et al

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19
Q

What did Steyer et al say a trait is?

A

Traits are a disposition that exerts influence on behaviours

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20
Q

What did Steyer et al say a state is?

A

A response to a situation that an individual is in at that given time

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21
Q

What is continuity?

A

How a person behaves across time

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22
Q

What is uniqueness?

A

The distinctiveness of a person’s behaviour

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23
Q

What is consistency?

A

How a person behaves across situations

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24
Q

What are implicit personality theories?

A

Theories of human behaviour that helps us understand others
Descriptions and talking to others will help determine perspective of their personality

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25
Q

What do observations do in implicit personality theory?

A

Determine cause and effect

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26
Q

What are the problems of implicit theories?

A

Less opportunities to fully check our implicit theory
Not scientific
Based on casual observation

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27
Q

What are the three theories of personality?

A

Psychodynamic, humanistic and behaviourist

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28
Q

What are the levels of consciousness?

A

Preconscious, conscious + unconscious

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29
Q

What is the preconscious?

A

Thoughts that are unconscious in the instant but can be recalled

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30
Q

What is the conscious?

A

Accessible thoughts

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31
Q

What is the unconscious?

A

Thoughts and memories that we are unaware of due to them being unacceptable through repression, an active process

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32
Q

What occurs in dreams?

A

Repression of unconscious thoughts is weaker

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33
Q

What is the manifest dream content?

A

Description of the dream that is recalled by the dreamer

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34
Q

What is the latent dream content?

A

Symbols (snakes and knives representing penises)

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35
Q

What do dreams represent?

A

Primary process thinking which will keep us asleep fulfilling the pleasure principle with unconscious desires

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36
Q

What does the primary process thinking contrast with?

A

Secondary process thinking (rational thought from the ego) and characteristics of the conscious + preconscious mind

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37
Q

Who looked at dream content?

A

Panksepp 1999

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38
Q

What did Panksepp find?

A

The goal-seeking behaviour which causes behaviour cravings in dreaming

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39
Q

What is the libido?

A

A child has a fixed amount of mental energy which develops into sexual drives in adulthood

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40
Q

What is the death instinct?

A

Response to the WWI, it is the self destructive instinct

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41
Q

What is subliminal perception?

A

Occurs when pp register stimulu without conscious awareness
Stimuli will effect behaviour

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42
Q

Who looked at research on the unconscious?

A

Patton, 1992

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43
Q

What did Patton find?

A

PPs with Eds presented with upsetting subliminal messages ate more after

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44
Q

Who criticised the unconscious?

A

Norman, 1981

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45
Q

What did Norman find?

A

Freudian slips are due to cog and attentional errors and due to a lack of arousal so they can use the word more commonly used instead of the correct

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46
Q

What is the structure of personality?

A

ID, superego + ego

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47
Q

What are the characteristics of the ID?

A

Instinctual energy, drives such as food, sexuality, reproduction, seen in infants (infants have a lack of delayed gratification if you wait your needs will be met), demands from ID become socialised

48
Q

What are the characteristics of the ego?

A

Secondary process thinking, the mediator, reality principle, use of defense mechanisms to mediate

49
Q

What are the characteristics of the superego?

A

Conscience, internalised parental attitudes, opposes the ID

50
Q

What does conflicts in the tripartite cause?

A

Intra-psychic conflict

51
Q

How does personality develop?

A

In 5 stages, development of sexual drives, each stage libido is focused in one erogenous zone determined by biological development, focal point of gratification, no attention to social factors

52
Q

When is the oral stage?

A

Birth- 1 year

53
Q

What is the point of fixation in the oral stage?

A

Mouth, lips, tongue

54
Q

What are the characteristics of the oral stage?

A

Helps meet the need of self-preservation
Investing libidinal energy into the mother is called cathexis so how the energy is in the pleasure provider
Allows trust in the caregiver

55
Q

What are the consequences from the oral stage?

A

Excessive eating, chewing, eating disorders and smoking

56
Q

Who looked at over-indulgence in the oral stage?

A

Blum, 1953

57
Q

What did Blum find?

A

Over-indulgence can cause an oral repetitive character: over dependent, being trusting and gullible

58
Q

Who looked at underindulgence in the oral stage?

A

Fenichel, 1945

59
Q

What did Fenichel find?

A

Under-indulgence can cause oral aggressive: exploitative attitude, sadistic attitudes, envy

60
Q

When is the anal stage?

A

18m-3 years

61
Q

What is the fixation in the anal stage?

A

Anus

62
Q

What are the characteristics of the anal stage?

A

Pleasure from bowel movements
Toilet training and reward when they show control
Anal region- erogenous
Resistance to the demands

63
Q

What are the 2 consequences from the anal stage?

A

Anal retentive + expulsive

64
Q

What are the characteristics of anal retentive?

A

Stingy, stubborn and delaying of gratification until the last moment (due to delay of bowel movements)

65
Q

What are the characteristics of the anal expulsive?

A

Disorganised, untidy, disregard norms

66
Q

When is the phallic stage?

A

3-5 years

67
Q

What is the fixation during the phallic stage?

A

Libidinal energy to the genitals

68
Q

Who looked at castration anxiety?

A

Rapport, 1960

69
Q

What did Rapport find?

A

The changes in relation to parents, boys become aware and perceive their mother as sexual object

70
Q

What is the oedipal compkex and how is it resolved.

A

Father is seen as a sexual rival
Boy identifies with father to resolve it

71
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

Father as sex object
Mother as rival and possesses some power but not as much as the father
Lower anxiety towards mother
Identify with mother
Girls cannot balance ID and superego so have weaker ego functioning

72
Q

What is the consequence of the phallic stage?

A

Male may be promiscuous and seek gratification they did not have as a child
If make does not adopt masculine traits they will develop feminine (same for women)
Homosexuality

73
Q

When is the latency stage?

A

5-12 years

74
Q

What are the characteristics of the latency srage

A

Energy in socialisation and learning
Peer group interaction with same sex children
Defense mechanisms

75
Q

When is the genital stage?

A

13-18 years

76
Q

What are the characteristics of the genital stage?

A

Puberty reawakens the libido
Conflicts in other stages will change sexual orientation

77
Q

Who looked at research into the stages of psychosexual development?

A

Fisher and Greenberg (1996)
Hunt (1979)

78
Q

What did Fisher and Greenberg find?

A

Concluded there is empirical evidence to support oral and anal personalities and weak evidence for oedipal and none for electra

79
Q

What did Hunt find?

A

Anal characteristics in adults but not related with toilet training

80
Q

What is the evaluation for Freud?

A

Heuristic value= caused debate and motivation to develop alternative treatments
Applied value= advance in treatment such as therapy
Parsimony= sexuality and aggression being main motivators
Comprehenstiveness= addresses normal and abnormal behaviour

81
Q

What did Pavlov look at and find?

A

Salivary response of animals and humans, natural response from dogs to salivate when seeing food.
Food= UCS, salivation= UCR, bell= NS. Association. (CC)

82
Q

What can classical conditioning explain?

A

Emotional reactions

83
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Consequence will encourage or discourage behaviour
NR, PR + Punishment

84
Q

What is shaping?

A

Initial reward for behaviour for a desired goal

85
Q

What does random + partial reinforcement do?

A

Produce behaviours that are resistant to change

86
Q

Who did the Little Albert experiment?

A

Watson and Rayner

87
Q

Who applied learning theory to personality?

A

Dollard and Miller

88
Q

What did Dollard and Miller say?

A

Thoughts and memories can cue behaviour
We are unaware of some processes as we acquire drives from before we learn to talk
Defence mechanism of repression is learnt as we fail to label the upsetting thought so they are not easy to recall, recalling reinforces the neg experience

89
Q

What are instinctoid tendencies? (Maslow)

A

Humans having an innate tendency for healthy growth and development
They are weak and overcame with negative environments

90
Q

What are the 2 types of human motivations?

A

Deficiency motives and growth motives

91
Q

What are deficiency motives?

A

Basic needs (hunger), needs we lack but are motivated to get, create a neg emotional state that changes when the need is satisfied

92
Q

What are growth motives?

A

Needs that are unique and gain intensity as they are met, rewarding, acts as further motivation to achieve personal goals

93
Q

What is the hierarchy of needs?

A

Physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualisation

94
Q

What are physiological needs?

A

Hunger, thirst, sleep
Deficiency needs

95
Q

What is safety needs?

A

Fears and anxieties of safety

96
Q

What are safety needs influenced by?

A

Personality factors such as altruism

97
Q

Who looked at safety needs?

A

Maslow

98
Q

What did Maslow find?

A

Safety needs in infants as they are upset by loud noises and rough handling

99
Q

What does an unsafe environment do?

A

Impact child development

100
Q

What is love and belongingness

A

Acceptance by others
Motivated to make friends and socialise
More awareness of loneliness

101
Q

What are the two types of love?

A

D-love and B-love

102
Q

What is D-love?

A

Deficiency need, the love we seek due to emptiness in ourselves, is selfish as we want it for ourselves, yearning for affection and sexual arousa

103
Q

What is B-love?

A

Growth need, loving others in an unconditional way for being, respect and individuality and putting their needs before your own

104
Q

What are the two types of esteem?

A

Based on the need to see ourselves as competent and achieving + need for esteem based on evaluation of other

105
Q

What is self-actualisation?

A

Maximising talents and finding meaning in life so they are at peace
A growth need

106
Q

Who looked at self-actualisation?

A

Maslow

107
Q

What did Maslow find?

A

It is prominent in adults
Not all individuals reach it

108
Q

What are metaneeds?

A

The needs for the self-actualisers such as beauty, truth, ethics and justice

109
Q

What are the characteristics of self-actualisers?

A

Creativity in the way they approached life
They engage more in B-cognition
Self-actualisers have more peak experiences
Higher levels of self-acceptance
Well-developed morals
Independent
Deeper personal relationships
Non-possessive B-love
Dislike humour about superiority+offensive but prefer philosophical based humour

110
Q

What is B-cognition?

A

A non-judgemental form of thought about accepting yourself and the world
Occurs during peak experiences

111
Q

How does the humanistic approach link to personality?

A

Children have an innate drive to develop which is positive and fuelled by motivational needs
Parental expectations and cultural expectations influence children

112
Q

Why does mental illness occur according to Maslow?

A

Failure to satisfy needs causing psychological disturbance
E.g. lack of safety= anxiety

113
Q

Who criticised Maslow?

A

Hoffman et al

114
Q

What did Hoffman et al find?

A

Lack of correlation between peak experiences and self-actualisation

115
Q

Who looked at applied value of Maslow?

A

Karney, 2014

116
Q

What did Karney do?

A

Utilised hierarchy of needs to examine marital expectations in therapy

117
Q

What is the evaluation of Maslow?

A

Description= simplified (self-actualisation being the root and no genetics)
Explanation= no acknowledgement of inconsistencies in theories
Empirical validity= small samples that were not randomly selected
Comprehensiveness= not done in a systematic fashion + doesn’t explain how self-actualisation can be reached
Parsimony= too parsimony due tp adoption of Freud’s theories which are inconsistent
Heuristic value= caused reviewing of methologies + focus on achievement

Personality and Individual Differences (9 decks)

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