Interpersonal Relationships Flashcards
What is the largest predictor of attraction for men?
Physical attractiveness
What is the largest predictor of attraction for women?
Status and signs of dominance
What does the paternal investment theory explain?
Sex/gender differences in attraction
How can we explain sex/gender differences in attraction?
Paternal Investment Theory
The idea that sex differences can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy, and risk (costs) to their own survival that males and females put into parenting versus mating
This is known as…?
Paternal Investment Theory
Describe the Paternal Investment Theory
The idea that sex differences can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy, and risk (costs) to their own survival that males and females put into parenting versus mating
According to the Paternal Investment Theory, why do men prefer women who are physically more attractive?
Sex for men has a low cost (the only cost is to produce sperm)
Men sleep with attractive females as they were more likely to be fertile than less attractive females
Men are attracted to a certain body type with clear skin as these are desirable traits to pass on to offspring
According to the Paternal Investment Theory, why do women prefer men who are dominant with a high status?
Sex for women has a high cost (9 months of pregnancy, takes lots of energy and effort to diet and to keep the baby healthy)
Women want men with status and a stable job/background to help support them with the overbearing parental investment costs
What type of faces are judged as more attractive?
a. Symmetric
b. Asymmetric
a. Symmetric
Why do men prefer female faces with high cheekbones and smooth skin?
Because it is the most sensitive indicator of high levels of oestrogen (healthy, fertile)
Why do women prefer male faces with a large jaw, and prominent brow ridges and cheekbones?
Because it signals high levels of testosterone (masculine, dominant)
What is the “ideal” type of body for men?
Upside-down triangle
- Narrow waist and broad chest and shoulders
What is the “ideal” type of body for women?
Hourglass
- Shaped waist-to-hip ratio of 0.70 (associated with fertility and being able to give birth easier)
People are cognitively biased towards attractive people.
Is this true or false?
True
Attractive people are more extraverted, have higher self-confidence, and possess better social skills (Langlois et al., 2000)
Why does this happen?
- Society treats them positively due to their attractiveness
- They grew to be more confident and comfortable around people because everyone around them treats them positively
- They receive more help and cooperation from those around them
- Hence, they are confident to talk to others and are more sociable
Why do attractive people receive better treatment from society?
Society tends to believe attractive people are morally good people, hence they receive better treatment, help and reassurance from others
This adds to their confidence and extraversion
How has the internet impacted romantic relationships?
The internet has changed the early stages of a relationship (starting off a relationship)
What is the problem with online dating? (in terms of having options of potential partners to choose from)
- Too many choices
- When given too many choices, people experience choice overload, in which they avoid making any decision rather than exerting the mental effort required to make a decision
What is the term used to describe when people are given too many choices that they experience a choice overload, in which they avoid making any decision rather than exerting the mental effort required to make a decision (Lyengar, 2010)?
Choice paralysis
Who proposed a study on online dating and choice paralysis?
Fishman, Lyengar, Kamenica and Simonson (2006)
Describe Fishman et al.’s (2006) study on choice paralysis in speed dating
- Students attended a speed dating event that varied in size from 18 participants to 42 participants
- As the size of the choice set increased, they said ‘yes’ to fewer potential partners
- Women who attended speed-dating events at which they met a small number of men (9-14) were over 40% more likely to agree to a follow-up meeting than those who met a larger number of men (15-21)
- As choice increases, people end up being less satisfied with their ultimate partner choice and more prone to reverse their decision (D’Angelo & Toma, 2017)
As choice increases, people end up being less satisfied with their ultimate partner choice and more prone to reverse their decision (D’Angelo & Toma, 2017)
Why does this occur?
Because they compare the different people they meet (potential partners) and wonder what life would be like if they chose a different person
Define objectification in online dating
Online dating sites act as a “shopping” website for potential partners
People tend to see pictures and profiles as ‘sales pitches’ and that we reduce people to ‘products’
It is easy to reduce/categorise people on attributes (job, redheads, income) rather than emotional attributes (warmth, friendliness)
What is the problem with online dating? (in terms of constructing profiles and creating profile descriptions)?
People often lie or overexaggerate in their personal dating profiles
Thus, when online dating partners meet in real life, one might feel disappointed in their potential partner because their profile descriptions did not meet their real-life attributes
Hitsch, Hortacsu, & Airely (2010) investigated 21,745 users’ dating profiles and compared them to the ‘national average’
What were the findings on the height in peoples’ dating profile descriptions?
Both men and women were taller than the national average in their descriptions (1.3 inches for men, 1 inch for women)
Hitsch, Hortacsu, & Airely (2010) investigated 21,745 users’ dating profiles and compared them to the ‘national average’
What were the findings on the weight in peoples’ dating profile descriptions?
Women claimed to weigh less than the national average (5.4 pounds for 20-29 age range and an average of 22.9 pounds for 50-59 year group)
Toma, Hancock and Ellison (2008) compared users’ profiles with their actual weight, height and age data with their online profile data
What were the findings?
- 81% had lied about at least one of their characteristics (age, height, weight)
- 60% lied about weight, 40% about their height, and 19% about their age.
What hypothesis proposes this?
People match with a romantic partner based on the same level of attractiveness
The Matching Hypothesis
The matching hypothesis suggests people match with a romantic partner based on the same level of attractiveness
Why is this?
People believe it is unrealistic to date someone who is 10x more attractive than them, so they go for someone more attainable
How do individuals know where they are on the attractiveness hierarchy?
Feedback loop
1) You ask a bunch of people out on a date, starting with the most attractive
2) If they reject you, you move on to the second most attractive
3) You continue to do this until someone shows reciprocation
4) Based on the feedback you got by asking people of different attractiveness levels on a date, you will be able to know where your position is on the attractiveness hierarchy
Who proposed evidence for the matching hypothesis?
Murstien
What did Murstien do in their experiment investigating the matching hypothesis?
1) Took photos of 100 faces of 50 real couples
2) Group A were shown a pair of real couples and was asked to rate each member of the couple on attractiveness
3) Group B were presented with the same pictures, but with 2 faces randomly put together (not real couples)
4) Results = Faces of real couples were consistently rated as more alike than faces randomly assigned to couples
Why do gay and lesbian couples differ from heterosexual couples in terms of choosing partners with similar attractiveness, ages and racial backgrounds (similarity)?
- People who are attracted to the same sex are working from a significantly smaller field of eligibles (smaller pool of potential partners)
- They don’t have much choice of who they can date
- They tend to compromise, especially in proximity because there are a limited number of gay people compared to straight people
- Gay people are more willing to go for people from different ethnic backgrounds, ages, etc because they have experienced prejudice before and show a progressive attitude
Why do gay and lesbian couples differ from heterosexual couples in terms of choosing partners with similar attractiveness, ages and racial backgrounds (similarity)?
- People who are attracted to the same sex are working from a significantly smaller field of eligibles (smaller pool of potential partners)
- They don’t have much choice of who they can date
- They tend to compromise, especially in proximity because there are a limited number of gay people compared to straight people
- Gay people are more willing to go for people from different ethnic backgrounds, ages, etc because they have experienced prejudice before and show a progressive attitude
Revealing information about oneself to another person is important in interpersonal relationships (Rubin, 1973)
This is known as…?
Self-disclosure
Define self-disclosure
Revealing information about oneself to another person
When do people self-disclose information about themselves to others?
If they see themselves becoming friends or romantic partners with the other person
What does the Meta-analysis suggest about self-disclosure (Collins & Miller, 1994)?
1) We disclose more to the people we like
2) We like people more after having disclosed to them
3) We like people who disclose more
Self-disclosure usually operates according to a …?
Norm of reciprocity (at least in the early days of the relationship)
“If I tell you something about me, you have to tell me something about yourself”
Self-disclosure is like a “delicate dance”. What does this mean?
- Not enough self-disclosure on a first date makes someone appear cold and unapproachable
- Too much self-disclosure on a first date makes someone appear over-revealing and odd
What things should you not disclose
about yourself on a first date?
- Salary
- Your relationship history
- Bad habits
- Body count
- TMI personal info (eg. your family member’s death)
Who proposed the Three-factor theory of love?
Hatfield and Walster
What are the 3 factors listed in the three-factor theory of love?
1) a state of physiological arousal
2) an appropriate label for that arousal (culturalinfluence)
(3) an appropriate love object
Who proposed the bridge study investigating the role of arousal?
Dutton & Aron
Describe the bridge study investigating the role of arousal
1) Male participants crossed a bridge
There were 2 conditions:
Group 1 = Shaky bridge
Group 2 = Safe and wide bridge
2) At the end of the bridge, an attractive female experimenter waited
3) Participants performed the Thematic Apperception Test
Ps were shown an ambiguous picture and were asked to write down a short story in which they comment on how the couple in the picture were thinking and feeling
4) Ps received her telephone number in case of questions
Describe the results of the shaky bridge participants in the bridge study investigating the role of arousal
Group 1 = Shaky bridge
- Induced arousal to attraction
- Described pictures from the thematic apperception test in a more sexual way
- e.g. The woman was having an affair and suddenly the husband walked in and is threatening to kill her lover
- More likely to call the attractive female experimenter later and ask to meet up
Describe the results of the stable bridge participants in the bridge study investigating the role of arousal
Group 2 = Stable and spacious bridge
- No induced arousal to attraction
- Described the pictures from the thematic apperception test in a rational, non-sexual way
- e.g. The couple are arguing about money or the man’s gambling addiction
- Less likely to call the attractive female experimenter later and ask to meet up
What theory attempts to explain what keeps a relationship going?
Investment theory
Who proposed the investment theory?
Rusbult
Describe the investment theory of maintaining relationships
People decide whether they want to remain or leave the relationship based on their satisfaction with the relationship, the quality of alternative relationships and investments
Set of theories: ‘Economic maintenance of relationships (e.g., social exchange theory, equity theory, investment theory)
This is known as…?
Investment theory
Which theory predicts that there are 3 main variables that predict a couple’s level of commitment to each other?
Investment theory
What are the 3 main variables that predict a couple’s level of commitment to each other, according to the investment theory?
1) Satisfaction
2) Quality of alternatives
3) Investment
When does one consider themselves satisfied with their relationship and choose to stay committed to their partners?
When the benefits of the relationship (i.e. good sex, company, money, fun) outweigh the cost of the relationship (i.e. arguments, loss of freedom, having to care for another)
There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. What are they?
1) Comparison level
2) Comparison level for alternatives
Is there a better relationship out there for me?
This is known as…?
a. Satisfaction
b. Investment
c. Quality of alternatives
c. Quality of alternatives
How happy am I in this relationship?
This is known as…?
a. Satisfaction
b. Investment
c. Quality of alternatives
a. Satisfaction
How much have I already put into this relationship?
This is known as…?
a. Satisfaction
b. Investment
c. Quality of alternatives
b. Investment
There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. One is the comparison level
Describe the comparison level
Comparing current levels of satisfaction with previous relationships
Simply = They don’t feel as happy or they feel happier in their current relationship compared to their previous relationships
There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. One is the comparison level for alternatives
Describe the comparison level for alternatives
Comparing the current relationship to other possible relationships on offer
Simply = They wonder how different their life would be if they get with other people
Comparing the current relationship to other possible relationships on offer
Simply = They wonder how different their life would be if they get with other people
This is known as…?
Comparison level for alternatives
Comparing current levels of satisfaction with previous relationships
Simply = They don’t feel as happy or they feel happier in their current relationship compared to their previous relationships
This is known as…?
Comparison level
Level of resources put into a relationship which increases the costs of withdrawing from the relationship.
e.g.
- Financial (e.g., money, house)
- Temporal (e.g., been with him/her 10 years)
- Emotional (e.g., self-disclosure, welfare of the kids)
This is known as…?
Investment
Describe investment in a relationship.
When the level of resources put into a relationship increases the costs of withdrawing from the relationship
e.g.
- Financial (e.g., money, house)
- Temporal (e.g., been with him/her 10 years)
- Emotional (e.g., self-disclosure, welfare of the kids)
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the more satisfied a person is with their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to remain in that relationship
More likely
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the less satisfied a person is with their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship
Less likely
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the lower the quality of alternatives in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship
More likely
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the higher the quality of alternatives in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship
Less likely
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the more prior investments made in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship
More likely
According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the fewer prior investments made in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship
Less likely
Why are satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investment factors not reliable predictors for commitment in a relationship?
Abused women stay even if they have low satisfaction because they have limited/poor-quality alternatives (less education, no way of supporting themselves)
Most of the time, they have invested more in their relationship to be able to leave (long time, children)
Lower quality of alternatives and greater investment size predicted:
a. Less commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour
b. More commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour
c. More commitment + More frequent leaving behaviour
d. Less commitment + More frequent leaving behaviour
b. More commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour
Who proposed 4 factors that characterise the strategies that people employ when their relationships break down?
Baxter
What were the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down?
1) Withdrawal/Avoidance
2) Manipulation
3) Positive-tone strategies
4) Open confrontation
Withdrawal/Avoidance is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down.
Explain Withdrawal/Avoidance
- Gentle way to avoid the offer from the other party
- Only works with casual relationships to avoid conflict
- Not answering texts or calls, ghosting
Manipulation is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down.
Explain Manipulation
- Instead of telling your partner you want to break up, you emotionally manipulate them into initiating the breakup with you
- To make it seem like you’re not the bad person
Positive-tone strategies are one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down.
Explain Positive-tone strategies
- Coming clean
- “It’s me, not you”
- Positive, to not hurt the other person
Open confrontation is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down.
Explain Open confrontation
- Being completely honest with your partner that you’re not happy with the relationship
- Coming clean and initiating the break-up yourself
Instead of telling your partner you want to break up, you emotionally manipulate them into initiating the breakup with you (to make it seem like you’re not the bad person)
This is known as…?
Manipulation
Being completely honest with your partner that you’re not happy with the relationship as well as coming clean and initiating the break-up yourself.
This is known as…?
Open confrontation
This is a gentle way to avoid the offer from the other party. It only works with casual relationships to avoid conflict and involves not answering texts or calls, ghosting
This is known as…?
Withdrawal/Avoidance
This involves coming clean with your partner and saying “it’s me, not you” and other positive tones in order to not hurt the other person
This is known as….?
Positive-tone strategies
