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A&P > Integumentary > Flashcards

Integumentary Flashcards

1
Q

Name two parts of integument

A

cutaneous membrane: Made of epidermis (epithelial cells), and dermis (dense irregular)

accessory structures: Originate in the dermis and extend through the epidermis to the skin surface
- hair: protect, and help detect light touch.

  • nails: protect and support tips of fingers and toes
  • multicellular exocrine glands: assist in temperature regulation and waste secretion.
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2
Q

Functions of skin

A
  1. protection, acts as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and harmful substances. It also prevents excessive water loss from the body.
  2. excretes salt, water, and organic wastes (glands)
  3. Helps maintain a stable internal temperature through insulation, sweating, and the dilation or constriction of blood vessels
  4. Calcitriol production (vit. D3)- Produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight, which is essential for calcium absorption and bone health
  5. Lipid storage- The hypodermis contains adipose tissue, which stores fat.
  6. Melanin production- melanin is produced in melanocytes in the epidermis. Provides protection against UV radiation
  7. sensory detects touch, pressure, pain and temperature
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3
Q

What are the layers of the epidermus?

A
  1. stratum basale
    deepest layer, adjacent to the dermis. consistes of a single layer of cuboidal to low columnar stem cells and mitotically active keratinocytes. There are some merkel (tactile) discs and melanocytes.
  2. stratum spinosum
    Consists of several layers of mitotically active keratinocytes (at base) which become flatter and less mitotically active as they are pushed up. Cells here are held together by desmosomes, providing mechanical strength and resistance to shear forces. Eight to ten layers

dendritic cells (langerhans cells) are found throughout this layer. Antigen-presenting sell.

  1. stratum granulosum
    the grainy layer
    Layer directly above the stratum spinosum, keratinocytes are no longer mitotically active. This is the layer where keratinocytes undergo apoptosis. Here epithelial layer is held together by tight junctions, preventing water loss and the entry of pathogens.
  • cells produce keratohyalin granules - promoting dehydration aid in keratinization and lamellar granules -> fats add to water proofing
  1. stratum lucidum
    the clear layer
    Found only in thick skin, such as the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, between the stratum granulosum and stratum corneum. Here the keratinocytes have no nuclei nor organelles giving it a pale featureless appearance.
  2. stratum corneum
    consists of 15-30 layers of dead, scaly fully keratinized cells. A durable surface layer. Is water resistant. Shed and replaced every 2 weeks.

boys say girls look cute

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4
Q

Describe life cycle of keratinocyte

A
  • produced by stem cells in stratum basale
  • pushed to the surface by newer keratinocytes, become flatter, produce more keratin.
  • average 30-40 days to make it to skin surface and exfoliate as dander.
  • in stratum spinosum tight junctions provide waterproofing
Keratinocytes are produced by mitosis of stem cells in the stratum basale layer of the skin. Newer keratinocytes push older ones towards the surface. Keratinocytes begin to mature and produce keratin in the stratum spinosum. These keratinocytes are still undergoing cell division. By the stratum granulosum the keratinocytes have flatted and accumulate keratohyalin granule, and undergo apoptosis. Keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are all dead.
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5
Q

Thick Skin

A

5 layers of skin (has stratum lucidum)
- found on plantar surfaces of the feet, and palmar surfaces of the hands.
- no hair nor sebaceous glands. High concentration of sudoriferous glands and sensory receptors.

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6
Q

Thin Layer

A

4 layers of skin (lack stratum lucidum)
- covers most of the body, has hair, sebaceous glands, fewer sudoriferous glands and sensory receptors.

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7
Q

What effects skin color

A

carotene
- orange - yellow pigment (orange vegtables / egg yolks)
- accumulates in corneam layer of epidermis (corneum contains fatty acids and cholesterol) and fatty tissues of the hypodermis.
- can be converted to vitamin a

melanin
- yellow -brown / black pigement
- produced by melanocytes in stratum basale
- stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes)
- transferred to keratinocytes
- we all have roughly the same number of melanocytes, different numbers of melanosomes.
- 2 types of melanine. pheomelanin (red / yellow) and eumelanin (brown / black). eumelanin provides better UV protection

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8
Q

Function of melanocytes

A

produce melanin. protects skin from sun damage. UV radiation cuases DNA mutations and burns that may lead to cancer.

  • pigment producing cells in the basal layer.
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9
Q

cyanosis

A

bluish skin tint
- is caused by severe reduction in blood flow and consequently oxygen to the skin. Normally skin has a reddish tint due to hemoglobin. When there is a lack of oxygen in the blood, skin will take on a blue tint.

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10
Q

Jaundice

A

yellow color
- buildup of bilirubin which is normally excreted by the liver

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11
Q

addison’s disease

A

skin darkens
- disease of pituitary gland

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12
Q

vitiligo

A

loss of pigmentation

  • is a condition where patches of skin lose their pigment and become white. It occurs when melanocytes in these areas cease to produce melanin (melanocyte dysfunction) / immune cells attack and kill melanocytes
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13
Q

Albinism

A

a genetic condition which results in white skin, hair, and light-colored eyes. It is caused by mutations in the genes involved in melanin production and causes a complete or partial loss of melanin

Genetic mutations prevent melanocytes from producing melanin or distributing it to keratinocytes

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14
Q

Vitamin D3

A
  • vitamin d3 aids in absorption of calcium and phosphorus in intestines, increasing reabsorption in kidneys and enhances effect of pth on bones. insufficient vitamin D3 can lead to rickets.
  • epidermal cells produce cholecalciferol in the presence of UV. Liver convert it to calcidiol, which is converted to the most active D3 in kidney (calcitriol).

Liver and kidney hydroxylate

Importantly pth regulate calcitriol levels. Part of regulatory system controlling calcium levels

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15
Q

What is the function of the dermis

A
  • anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands)
  • anchors the epidermis.
  • Provide Strength and elasticity (irregular connective tissue (collagen + elastic fibers))
  • Supplies Nutrients (blood flow)
  • Thermaregulation (constrictions / dilation of blood vessels)
  • contains immune cells
  • fibroblasts in dermis important for wound healing
  • sensory reception (meissner corpuscles / ruffini corpuscles / pacinian corpuscles)
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16
Q

What are the two layers of the dermis

A

papillary layer - loose areolar tissue.

  • Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatic vessels and sensory neurons (meissner corpuscles). Has dermal papillae which project between epidermal ridges.

deep reticular layer - dense irregular CT.
- contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve fibers (lamellated pacinian corpuscles), exocrine sweat glands, hair follicles.

eccrine, apocrine, and hair follicles can extend into the hypodermis

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17
Q

What causes stretch marks

A

Stretch marks are caused by the breaking of both collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis due to rapid stretching.

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18
Q

Hypodermis / subcutaneous layer / superficial facia

A
  • lies below the integument
  • primary adipose tissue and areolar CT
  • connected to dermis by CT
  • blood vessels

Function
- insulation / energy storage (adipose tissue)
- loosly attaches skin to underlying structures, allows skin mobility
- nutrient supply.

site of subcutaneous injections

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19
Q

What are the 7 types of tactile receptors

A

tactile receptors monitor touch, pressure, and vibration. Provide information about shape and texture

  • free nerve endings: touch, pressure, pain, temp
  • root hair plexus (surround hair root): hair movement
  • merkel (tactile) discs - reach into epidermis: fine touch / pressure. They are particularly sensitive to sustained pressure and provide information about the texture and shape of objects
  • meissner (tactile) corpuscles - end in dermal papillae: fine touch / pressure + low frequency vibration. They are most sensitive to changes in texture and are involved in the sensation of fine, discriminative touch
  • lamellated corpuscles - deep dermis: deep pressure / high frequency vibration
  • ruffini corpuscles: Skin distortion (stretching), sustained pressure
  • nociceptor a type of free nerve ending: detecting noxious or painful stimuli.
20
Q

Describe the structure of nails

A
  • Nail Body: the visible portion of the nail
  • Nail bed (sterile matrix): lies under nail plate.
  • Naile plate: Entire hard, keratinized structure of the nail, including the nail body, nail root, and free edge
  • Nail Root: Proximal portion of the nail plate embedded under the skin at the base of the nail, responsible for nail growth
  • germinal matrix: The base of the nail (under nail root), where nail matrix cells rapidly divide, become keratinised, producing new nail.
  • Lunula: the pale crescent at the base of the nail. Visible germinal matrix through proximal nail plate.
  • lateral nail grooves: the sides of the nail. Surround the lateral nail fold
  • hyponychium: skin beneath the distal free edge of the nail
  • eponychium: the cuticle, where the visible nail emerges
  • nail folds. Proximal, thick skin right above cuticle. Lateral nail fold thick skin on sides of nail plate.
21
Q

What is the function of nail

A
  • Nails provide protection and enhance sensation in finger tips by providing a counterforce
  • Are dead, packed keratin
  • Nail production occurs at the nail root (deep epidermal fold)

While the nail root refers to the overall area at the base of the nail where growth begins, the germinal matrix specifically refers to the tissue that actively generates new nail cells

Sterile matrix lies under nail plate.

22
Q

Describe functions of hair

A
  • protects and insulates
  • guards opening against foreign body
  • adds sensitivity to very light touch
23
Q

What are the two types of hair

A

vellus hairs: soft, fine, cover body surface
terminal hairs: heavy, pigmented, head, eyebrows, eyelashes, puberty parts

24
Q

Describe hair structure

A

hair shaft Visible part of the hair, extends above the skin. Within the dermis called hair root.

hair root part of hair within the skin, encased by the hair follicle

hair bulb base of the hair, when cell division occurs, contains dermal papilla which contains blood vesicles, supplies nutrients to growing hair.

hair matrix: Located at the base of the hair follicle within the hair bulb, containing rapidly dividing hair matrix cells in epithelial tissue that produce the hair shaft.

The hair follicle includes the inner and outer shaft, encloses the hair root and hair bulb.

25
Q

Describe accessory structures of hair

A

arrector pili
- smooth muscle, causes hairs to stand up.

sebaceous glands
- an exocrine gland which secrete oily substance (sebum) via holocrine secretion. Lubricates the hair and helps control bacteria

26
Q

Describe hair production

A

Anagen Phase (Growth Phase)

Duration: Lasts from 2 to 6 years.

  • a layer of dividing basal cells in the hair bulb divide rapidly, pushing the hair shaft up and out.
  • Dermal Papilla: Provides nutrients and signals for hair growth through its blood supply.
    Inner and Outer Root Sheath, support and protect the growing hair.

Catagen Phase (Transition Phase)

Duration: Lasts about 2 to 3 weeks.

Activity: Hair growth stops, and the hair follicle shrinks and detaches from the dermal papilla.

Club hair forms
Telogen Phase (Resting Phase)

Duration: Lasts about 2 to 4 months.

The hair follicle is dormant, and no active growth occurs. The hair remains in the follicle as a club hair.

Exogen Phase (Shedding Phase):

Activity: The old hair (club hair) is shed from the follicle, can be triggered by the growth of a new hair in the

active cycles through everyone

27
Q

what is the hair matrix

A
  • It is the region where actively dividing cells proliferate to form the hair shaft and the inner root sheath. The cells in the hair matrix undergo rapid mitosis, producing the cells that will become the hair shaft and the inner root sheath as they move upward and become keratinized (filled with keratin).
  • The hair matrix is located at the base of the hair follicle, just above the dermal papilla, within the hair bulb.
28
Q

Describe hair shaft structure

A

Medulla
Location: The innermost layer of the hair shaft.
Structure: It consists of loosely packed, soft keratinized cells. Not all hair types have a medulla; it is more commonly found in thicker hairs.

Cortex
Location: Surrounds the medulla and makes up the majority of the hair shaft.
Structure: The cortex contains tightly packed, elongated cells filled with hard keratin. It provides strength, elasticity, and determines the hair’s color due to the presence of melanin granules.

Cuticle
Location: The outermost layer of the hair shaft.
Structure: Composed of a single layer of flat, overlapping cells arranged like shingles on a roof. These cells contain hard keratin and provide a protective barrier for the inner layers of the hair shaft.

29
Q

Define sebaceous glands

A
  • holocrine glands
  • secrete sebum. An oily secretion which contains oils
  • lubricates and protects the epidermis and hair, inhibits bacterial growth.
30
Q

What are the two types of perspiration

A

insensible perspiration
-interstitial fluid lost by evaporation through the stratum corneum. We loose between 0.5-0.8 qt per day

sensible perspiration
- water excreted by sweat glands.
- We can see / feel this water loss.

31
Q

What are the two types of sudoriferous glands

A

apocrine
- located in armpits, nipples, groin, beard
- inactive until puberty
- secrete into hair follicles
- a sticky, cloudy secretion which break down and cause odors
- respond to nervous or hormonal signals.

eccrine sweat glands
- widely distributed on body surface, especially on palms and soles
- discharge directly to skin surface
- release water, salts and organic compounds
- cool skin, flush microorganisms and harmful chemicals

BOTH utilize merocrine secretion

32
Q

mammary glands

A
  • modified apocrine glands, produce milk.

apocrine secretion

33
Q

ceruminous glands

A
  • modified apocrine glands in the external ear, produce cerumen (earwax) to protect the eardrum, waterproofs canal, and kills bacteria

apocrine secretion

34
Q

List two types of nonmelanomas

A

basal cell carcinoma
- 78% of skin cancers
- basal cells in stratum basale
- rarely metastasize.
- often appears as a pearly or waxy bump, a flat, flesh-colored or brown scar-like lesion, or a sore that bleeds, scabs, and returns.
- BCC typically develops on areas of the skin that are frequently exposed to the sun, such as the face, neck, and hands.

squamous cell carcinoma
- 20% of skin cancers
- Originates from the squamous cells in the stratum spinosum of the epidermis
- variable tendency to metastasize
- CC often appears as a firm, red nodule, or a flat lesion with a scaly, crusted surface. It can also present as a sore that doesn’t heal or a wart-like growth.
- Chronic sun exposure, fair skin, a history of sunburns, older age, immunosuppression, and exposure to carcinogenic substances (like tobacco or certain chemicals).

35
Q

How do you detect melanomas

A

ABCDE RULE

A: asymmetry
B: border irregularity
C: color; contains several colors / uneven coloration
D: diameter; larger than 6mm
E: evolution; changes in A-D

36
Q

Characteristics of melanomas

A
  • 2% of all skin cancers
  • melanocytes
  • metastasize rapidly, high mortality rate, resistant to chemotherapy
37
Q

Describe Burn types

A

first-degree
- partial thickness burn, involves only the epidermis
- mild pain and erythema (redness)
- no blisters
- skin functions remain intact

second degree burn
- destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis
- some skin functions are lost
- redness blister formation, edema, pain
- hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands usually not injured

third degree burn
- full thickness burn, destroys epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
- most skin functions lost,
- edema, burned region is numb, sensory nerve endings destroyed
- regeneration occurs slowly, often skin grafts are needed.

38
Q

What are the systemic effects of burns

A
  • large loss of water, plasma, and plasma proteins, can cause shock
  • bacterial infection
  • reduced circulation of blood
  • decreased production of urine
  • immune response
39
Q

Primary causes of death from burn

A
  1. shock from rapid fluid loss
  2. infection
  3. toxic effects of eschar (burned / dead tissue)
40
Q

Skin graft options

A

Permanent graft options
autograft skin taken from another location on the body. Can be a split graft where only epidermis, and part of the dermis is taken.

isograft skin from identical twin

Temporary graft - will eventually be rejected
homograft from unrelated person
heterograft graft from another species
amnion the innermost layer of the placenta, which can be used as a biological dressing for wounds.
artificial skin from silicone and collagen

41
Q

Basement membrane layers

Basement membrane function

A

The basement membrane is a specialized extracellular matrix found at the interface between epithelial cells and the underlying connective tissue. It anchors the epithelium to dermis, acts as a selective filter, and influences cell behavior.

The basement membrane is composed of the basal lamina and the reticular lamina. The basal lamina can be further subdivided into the lamina lúcida and lamina densa.

basal lamina
Lamina lúcida has laminin, lamina densa collagen IV. Secreted by epithelial cells.

Reticular Lamina
- A layer of the basement membrane located beneath the lamina densa, blending with the underlying connective tissue.

  • Secreted by connective tissue cells (fibroblasts), composed of type III collagen and extracellular matrix proteins.
42
Q

describe basal / stem cell

A

found in the deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale. These cells are stem cells, are constantly undergoing mitosis, and are responsible for epithelial regeneration

mesenchymal stem sells -> can become: osteoblasts, chondroblasts, adipocytes, myocytes, fibroblasts

43
Q

describe keratinocyte

A

are the most abundant cell in epidermis. They are born from basal cells in the stratum basal and move to the stratum corneum. As they move up the layers they undergo keratinization in which they flatten, become full of keratin, and eventually die forming a protective layer

44
Q

Describe what epidermal ridges are. Describe what dermal papillae are.

A

The boundary between the epidermis and dermis is “wavy”, like corrugated cardboard. This structure provides structural integrity preventing slippage between the epidermal and dermal layers. The epidermal ridge are the downward waves of the epidermis and the dermal papillary are the upward waves of the dermis.

45
Q

What two factors account for differences in skin ton

A

Amount of melanin produced. We have roughly the same number of melanocytes but these cells produce different amounts of melanin.
The ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin produced.

46
Q

describe lamellar granules

A

Lamellar granules are formed within keratinocytes in the deeper layers of the epidermis (spinosum and granulosum). As keratinocytes migrate upwards to the stratum granulosum, the granules move to the cell surface and release their contents through exocytosis into the intercellular space resulting in the formation of an impermeable, lipid-containing membrane that serves as a water barrier and is required for correct skin barrier function.

The granules themselves contain lipids (cholesterol / free fatty acids), enzymes and other proteins

47
Q

Describe 10 Steps in Wound Healing

A
  1. severed vessels bleed into cut. mast cells release histamine, increasing blood flow and making capillaries more permeable.
  2. blood plasma seeps into the wound carrying antibodies and clotting proteins.
  3. blood clot forms knitting the edges of the cut together inhibiting the spread of pathogens. (fibrin / platelets / blood cells)
  4. a scab forms (composed of fibrin, platelets / blood cells)
  5. macrophages phagocytize bacteria/dead cells.
  6. New capillaries sprout from nearby vessels
  7. Deeper portions of a clot become infiltrated by capillaries and fibroblasts. Macrophages remove the blood clot. Fibroblasts deposit new collagen (type III then type I), creating granulation tissue. Begins 3-4 days after injury and lasts of to 2 weeks.
  8. epithelial cells around the wound multiple and migrate beneath scab. covering the wound surface, providing protectieve barrier, protecing underlying barrier.
  9. underlying connective tissue undergoes fibrosis creating scar tissue may or may not show through epithelium.
  10. remodeling maturation phase begins several weeks after injury

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