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biology > inquiry question 1 mod 5 > Flashcards

inquiry question 1 mod 5 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

reproduction

A

production of new offspring
- asexual
- sexual

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2
Q

heredity

A

the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genetics through DNA which is located in the cells nucleus

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3
Q

sexual reproduction

A

requires the combination of genetics from two individuals to create genetically different individuals
- meiosis
- fuses to form 2n zygote

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4
Q

asexual reproduction

A

requires one individual to create genetically identical offspring
- mitosis
eg. binary fission, budding, fragmentation, regeneration
eg. starfish,

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4
Q

advantages to asexual reproduction

A

-Does not place a great energy demand on the organism
- Mate isn’t required
- Offspring can disperse easily to colonise new areas
- Reduces competition for resources → increases survival chances for the parent and offspring
- Reproduce very rapidly → don’t have to wait for fertilisation or the growth of the embryo

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5
Q

disadvantages to asexual reproduction

A
  • No genetic variation
  • Dangerous mutations in DNA are passed down
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6
Q

different asexual reproduction methods and examples

A
  • Vegetative propagation → Budding, cutting, layering, grafting → eg. plants, protists
  • Binary fission → eg. bacteria, protists
  • Fragmentation
  • Regeneration
  • Parthenogenesis
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7
Q

cutting

A

part of stem is cut and planted in the soil, gradually growing into another plant

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8
Q

layering

A

Branch of plant bends down into the soil and develops its own roots while attached to parent plant

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9
Q

grafting

A
  • Two plants are selected and the stem of the base plant (stock) is cut and the other plant cutting (scion) is joined on
  • The scion grows into the fruit and flowers
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10
Q

budding + process

A

when offspring grows off the body of the parent which is identical to the parent eg. fungi, tapeworm
- after breaking off the organism is independent
process:
1. small protrusion on the parent cell grows to form a bud
2. nucleus of parent cell splits –> produces a daughter nucleus –>migrates to the new cell
3. bud pinches off the base –> detaches from the parents base
4. process repeated to form a chain of buds

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11
Q

sporation

A

through asexual and sexual reproduction sexual spores produce a fruiting body eg. fungus
process:
1. spores grow long hyphae through budding
2. different hyphae meet –> conjugate –> combine genetic material (sexual)
3. produces diploid (2n) fungus –> matures to form a fruiting body
4. process restarts

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12
Q

binary fission

A

Asexual reproduction of two identical daughter cells eg. bacteria, protists
process:
1. Bacterium contains tightly wound DNA
2. DNA is replicated
3. Each copy of DNA moves to opposite ends of the bacterium as it increases in size
4. A cell wall begins to form in the centre of the bacterium
5. New cell wall completely splits the bacterium in half
6. The new daughter bacteria are complete with DNA, ribosomes and plasmids (tightly wound)

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13
Q

pathogenesis

A

females produce eggs which develop into young without being fertilised eg. some insects (bees), some fish
- no increase in genetic diversity –> the offspring are genetically identical to the parent

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14
Q

fragmentation

A

Allows an adult to break up into two or more pieces in order to produce exact copies of itself eg. flatworms
- fragments develop into mature adults

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15
Q

regeneration

A

If part of the animal if broken or cut off from an individual → the part can develop into a new individual if the body part contains enough genetic information from the parent

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16
Q

advantages to sexual reproduction

A
  • Diverse offspring due to genetic variation –> Better chance of survival from harsh environments
  • Plants can resist disease
  • Selective breeding –> used to develop plants and animals with desirable traits
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17
Q

disadvantages to sexual reproduction

A
  • Time and energy
  • Organisms have to grow and develop until they can produce sex cells
  • Searching for a mate may expose the individual to predators, disease or harsh environmental conditions
  • Needs to find a mate to be fertilised
  • Fertilisation cannot take place during pregnancy → for some mammals it lasts 2 years
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18
Q

fertilisation

A

Fusion of two sex cells eg. sperms and eggs (gametes) to form a diploid zygote
- union of two haploid (n) gametes → restores the chromosome number back to normal →
- external
- internal

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19
Q

external fertilisation

A

egg fertilised outside the female’s body
- Male and female gametes are released into the species surrounding → some will fuse to form a zygote
- requires a moist environment
eg. fish

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20
Q

zygote

A

the first cell of a new organism

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21
Q

why does external fertilisation require a moist environment

A
  • Prevents the desiccation of gametes
  • Provides a medium of transport
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22
Q

how do animals overcome issues during external fertilisation

A
  • mass spawning
  • timing release of gametes
  • frogs have complex mating behaviours
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23
Q

internal fertilisation

A

eggs are fertilised by the sperm inside the females body through specialised functions in the male
- male and female must be in close proximity
- males have specialised copulatory organs (penis)

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24
Q

example of male specialised copulatory organ

A

penis

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25
Q

stages of the reproductive cycle

A
  • internal fertilisation
  • implantation of embryo
  • pregnancy
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26
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers of the body

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26
Q

pituitary gland

A

stimulates endocrine glands that control the secretion of hormones

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27
Q

oestrus

A

fertile

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28
Q

advantages and disadvantages of internal fertilisation

A

advantages:
- high probability of successful fertilisation
- less gametes needed
- external water source is not needed

disadvantages:
- organisms need to be in close proximity
- energy demands to find mate and protect offspring is high
- few offspring can be produced

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29
Q

advantages and disadvantages of external fertilisation

A

Advantages
- Offspring can disperse easily
- Mate is not required
Disadvantages
- Gametes may be eaten by predators
- strong currents can sweep them away

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30
Q

hermaphrodite animals

A

organism that produces both female and male gametes

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31
Q

parts of the male reproductive system

A

semen
urethra
testes
scrotum
epididymis
penis
prostate gland
seminal vesicles
vas deferens

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32
Q

testes

A

structure: oval structure
function: responsible for secreting the hormone testosterone and produces sperm

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33
Q

semen

A

sperm + prostate fluid exists body via urethra

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34
Q

penis

A

structure: the organ used for urination and sexual intercourse, contains the urethra
function: Spongy tissue → can fill with blood to cause an erection

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35
Q

scrotum

A

structure: loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body behind the penis
function: holds testes in place and keeps sperm at a lower temperature

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36
Q

epididymis

A

structure: highly coiled tube that lies at the back of the testes
function: all sperm must pass through this structure where they mature and start to swim

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37
Q

vas deferens

A

structure: thick walled tube joined to the epididymis
function: carries sperm from the epididymis up to the prostate gland and urethra

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38
Q

prostate

A

produces fluid secretions that support and nourish the sperm

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39
Q

urethra

A

structure: Tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at the end of the penis
function: carries both urine and sperm (gametes)

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40
Q

seminal vesicles

A

structure: 2 small glands above the prostate gland
function: makes up much of the fluid in semen

41
Q

how often does a women produce an egg

A

every 28 days

42
Q

roles of the female reproductive system

A
  • Production of female gametes in the ovaries
  • Delivers the ovum to the oviducts where fertilisation occurs
  • Prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation and development of embryo
  • Produces main female sex hormones → oestrogen
43
Q

what is the female reproductive system involved in

A
  • childbirth
  • fertility
  • sexual activity
  • pregnancy
44
Q

parts of the female reproductive system

A

ovaries
fallopian tubes
uterus
cervix
vagina
endometrium

45
Q

ovaries

A

structure: two ovaries –> one on each side of the fallopian tubes
function:
- Oestrogen and progesterone are produced
- Eggs are stored to mature
- Where ovulation occurs → once a month an egg is released

46
Q

fallopian tubes

A

structure: 2 thin tubes
function: connects the ovary to the uterus and the place of fertilisation

47
Q

uterus

A

structure:
function: place of implantation of zygote and placenta formation
- pregnancy occurs –> Fertilised egg will implant in the uterus and grow into a foetus
- pregnancy doesn’t occur –> menstruation occurs and lining flows out of the body

48
Q

cervix

A

structure: lower part of the uterus
function: canal connecting uterus and vagina

49
Q

vagina

A

structure: birth canal
function: connects the cervix to the outside body

50
Q

endometrium

A

structure: inner layer of uterus mucous layer
function: Functional layer → thickens and becomes rich in blood vessels → shed in menstruation
- helps maintain pregnancy if implantation occurs and menstruation in the absence of pregnancy

51
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

production or development of mature spermatozoa (sperm)

52
Q

spermatozoa

A

mature motile male gamete by which the ovum is fertilised

53
Q

sperm

A

(n) haploid male gamete cells
- Flagellum - tail
- Neck - contains energy producing mitochondria
- Head - contains DNA and genetic material

54
Q

sertoli cells

A

facilitate the maturation of sperm

55
Q

process of spermatogenesis

A
  • sperm cells produced in seminiferous tubules inside the testicles
  • after developing flagella and nearly mature (through the help of sertoli cells) they leave the testicles and enter the epididymis
  • leave epididymis –> enter vas deferens –> exit penis through urethra in the form of semen
56
Q

hormones involved in male sperm production

A

GnRH, LH, FSH, Testosterone

57
Q

process of sperm production in terms of hormones

A

puberty –> hypothalamus causes release of gNRH –_> stimulates the anterior pitaury gland –> secretes FSH and LH
- FSH and LH enter the seminiferous tubes
- stimulates leydig cells and sertoli cells –> secretes testostosterone and androgynous binding proteins
- ABP and testosterone begins spermatogenesis
- negative feedback system occurs
- rising T acts on the release of GnRH and LH
- when sperm is too high inhibin is released which inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH

58
Q

lutenising hormone (male)

A
  • targets and binds to receptors on leydig cells (secrete testosterone) in the semiiferous tubes
59
Q

testosterone

A

male hormone –> stimulates development of sexual characteristics
– secreted by Leydig cells
deepening voice, growth of facial hair

60
Q

GnRH (male)

A

secreted by hypothalamus and targets the pitaury glands which stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH

61
Q

LH (male)

A

secreted by the pituitary gland and targets the leydig cells to stimulate production of testosterone

62
Q

FSH (male)

A

secreted by the pituitary gland and targets the sertoli cells to stimulate the beginning of spermatogenesis

63
Q

oogenesis

A

process of the creation of ova eggs
- ovary contains follicles –> follicles have oocytes –> matures during menstrual cycle –> ovulation –> release of ovum from follicle –> remaining follicular tissues grows within the ovary –> forms corpus luteum

64
Q

oocytes

A

immature female egg cells that mature during the menstrual cycle to become ovum

65
Q

ovarian cycle

A

monthly cycle of egg development in the ovary

66
Q

menstruation cycle

A

cyclic preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy in females

67
Q

hormones in the menstrual cycle

A

FSH
LH
oestrogen
progesterone
GnRH

68
Q

GnRH (women)

A

secreted by the hypothalamus and targets the pituitary gland which stimulates FSH secretion

69
Q

FSH women

A

secreted by the pituitary gland that targets the ovaries
- follicular growth
- increases until ovulation day 14 then decreases
- stimulate oestrogen secretion

70
Q

LH women

A

secreted by the pituitary gland and stimulate oestrogen production in the ovary
- spike in this hormone causes ovulation

71
Q

oestrogen

A

secreted by the follicles in the ovaries
- Stimulates the pituitary to secrete LH and less FSH (negative feedback)
- Thickens the endometrium layer
- Produced by the ovaries in response to LH and FSH

72
Q

progesterone

A
  • secreted by the corpus luteum
  • endometrium to thicken and stabilise which allows the egg to be implanted
  • if pregnancy doesnt occur –> levels decrease –> menstruation occurs –> corpus luteum degenerates
73
Q

4 key phases in the female reproductive cycle

A
  1. follicular phase
  2. luteal phase
  3. ovulation
  4. menstrual phase
74
Q

follicular phase

A

Hypothalamus releases GnRH to the pituitary gland
FSH → secreted from pituitary gland
Dominant follicle survives → produces oestrogen → inhibits FSH secretion to prevent other follicles from growing → also acts on the uterus → thickening the endometrium layer

75
Q

ovulation phase

A

Oestrogen → stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete LH → less FSH (negative feedback)
LH → causes follicle to rupture → releases ovum

76
Q

luteal phase

A
  • Starts after ovulation
  • Ends with first day of period
    Ruptured follicle develops into the corpus luteum
    Corpus luteum:
    Secretes high levels of progesterone and lower levels of oestrogen
    Inhibit FSH and LH → Negative feedback in order to prevent any other follicles to develop
    Progesterone → Endometrium to thicken and stabilise → allows the egg to be implanted
    Blood vessels to grow → supplies nutrients and oxygen for the embryo
77
Q

menstrual phase

A

Fertilisation does not occur → corpus luteum degenerates → forms corpus albicans → progesterone and oestrogen levels decrease
Endometrium layer and the egg are shed → menstrual cycle
Then the cycle begins again

  • during the follicular phase
78
Q

process of fertilisation

A
  • during copulation contractions in the vas deferens move sperm towards urethra → using their tails to swim in a corkscrew motion
  • Egg and sperm travel in opposite directions →meet in the fallopian tube
  • Sperm uses acrosome enzymes (in the head) → break down the protective jelly coat that surround the egg
  • Jelly coat releases chemical to attract sperm
  • Nuclei from sperm and egg fuse together –> form a zygote
  • Jelly coat then separates from the egg → prevents fertilisation by multiple sperm
79
Q

process after fertilisation

A
  1. Zygote (2n) - fertilised ovum travels through the fallopian tubes towards the uterus
  2. Morula - 3-4 days post fertilisation where the zygote undergoes mitosis and becomes 2 cells or more → unspecialised ball of cells
  3. Blastocyst - 4-5 days of post fertilisation → attaches to the endometrium of the uterus (inner wall)
    4.Placenta - organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy, provides nutrients and removes waste from the baby’s blood → attaches to the wall of the uterus and the umbilical cord arises from it
  4. Embryo - early stage of development of a multicellular organism → has not differentiated adult features
  5. Foetus - 9th week , adult features are developing
80
Q

pregnancy hormones

A
  • hCG –> stops ovulation (s placenta)
  • oestrogen –> assist in development of organs (s corpus luteum)
  • progesterone –> stops uterine contractions (s corpus luteum)
  • relaxin –> cervix –> loosens (s corpus luteum)
81
Q

why do plants prefer asexual methods

A
  • requires less energy
    variability is not essential if environment is stable
  • when colonising a new area finding a mate may be hard
82
Q

forms of asexual reproduction in plants

A

budding - Plantlets arise from tissue located in notches along the leaves
When mature → plantlets separate from the leaves and drop to the soil → take root and develop into a mature plant
Cutting
Segment cut diagonally across the stem
Fragmentation
Runners (stolons) eg. strawberries
Plants that reproduce by runners (long slender stems that grow along the surface of the soil)
Asexual reproduction → clones
Runners grow from the parent plant and develop into nodes → nodes develop into a new cloned plant with leaves. Roots and flowers

83
Q

methods of plant and animal reproduction in agriculture

A
  • selective breeding: practice of choosing particular desirable characteristics and breeding individuals that possess these traits together to produce offsprings that exhibit most favourable characteristics
  • artificial pollination: Pollen manually transferred from stamen to the stigma to facilitate artificial pollution
  • artificial insemination :Process of transferring semen into a female reproductive tract manually
  • cloning
  • hybridisation
84
Q

sexual reproduction in plants

A
85
Q

male plant parts

A

anther
gamete: pollen found in the anther

86
Q

female parts

A

egg
ovary
stigma
style
gamete: egg found in the ovary

87
Q

stigma

A

receives pollen during fertilisation

88
Q

style

A

tube on top of the ovary

89
Q

ovary

A

female reproductive organ that produces and stores eggs

90
Q

ovule

A

Reproductive cell that will become the seed when fertilised by pollen

91
Q

anther

A

Contains the male reproductive cell, pollen

92
Q

filament

A

Holds the anther

93
Q

petals

A

Often brightly coloured to attract pollinators

94
Q

Sepal

A

Small leaves under flower

95
Q

process of reproduction in plants

A
  1. pollen is deposited on the plants stigma
    - through either self-pollination or cross pollinations
  2. growth of pollen tube
    - pollen tube grows down the style into the ovary
    - pathway for sperm to reach egg
    - nucleus of pollen moves down the tube to fertilise the female gamete nucleus inside ovule
  3. penetration of ovum
    - pollen tube penetrates the ovum which contains the female gamete
  4. fertilisation
    - sperm travels down ad fertilised the egg
    - zygote is formed
    - ovule becomes seed –> fruit –> seed dispersed in wind, animals, fire
96
Q

self- pollination

A

a plants own fertilisation of its own ovum

97
Q

cross pollination

A

-transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another
- - promotes genetic diversity
birds –> attracted to nectar in flowers and transfer pollen via bills
insects –> Bees are attracted to flowers and transfer pollen
wind: anthers release pollen containing male gametes in the air

98
Q

moss

A

asexual and sexual reproduction methods
- diploid zygote formed
- sporophyte produces calyptra –> filled with haploid spores –> releases spores that bud asexually

99
Q

plant adaptations

A

wind: LONG FILAMENT, LARGE FEMALE STIGMAS
insects: scented, colours
birds: stick pollen, long

100
Q

days luteal phase

A

15-28

101
Q

days follicular includes menstruation

A

1-13

102
Q

ovulation

A

14

biology (11 decks)

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