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INFECTION and RESPONSE Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are pathogens

A

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease. Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi. They may infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, by water or by air.

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2
Q

Bacteria:

A

They reproduce rapidly inside your body.
They make you feel ill by producing toxins that damage your cells and tissues

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3
Q

Viruses:

A
  • viruses are not cells
  • like bacteria, they can reproducd rapidly inside your body
  • they live onside your cells and replicate themselves using the cells’ machinery to produce many copies of themselves.
    (The cell usually then bursts, releasing all the new viruses)
  • this cell damage is what makes you feel ill
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4
Q

Protists:

A
  • they are eukaryotes and mostly single-celled.
  • some are parasites. Which live on or indise other organisms and can cause them damage. - -They are offen transferred to the organism by a vector, which doesn’t get the disease itself.
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5
Q

Fungi:

A
  • some are single-celled. Some have a boyd made of hyphae
  • these hyphae can grow and penetrate human skin and the surfscd of plants, causing diseases.
  • the hyphae can produce spores, which can be spread to ofher plants and animals.
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6
Q

Explain the three ways in which pathogens can be spread:

A

WATER:
- some pathogens are picked ip by drinking or bathing in dirty water
AIR:
- pathogens can be carried in the air and can be breathed in. Some airborne pathogens are carried in the air on droplets produced when you sneeze/cough.
DIRECT CONTACT:
- some pathogens can be picked up by touching contaminated surfaces, including the skin.

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7
Q

Measles (viral disease)….

A
  • spread by droplets from infected person’s sneeze or cough.
  • people with it develop red skin rashes, and a fever.
  • measles can be very serious
  • most are vaccinated against measles
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8
Q

HIV (viral disease)…

A
  • spread by sexual contact, or by exchanging bodily fluids such as blood. This can happen when people share needles when taking drugs
  • causes flu-like symptons, then they don’t experience anything for several years. During this time, HIV can be controlled with antiretrviral drugs, whihc stops the virus from replicating.
  • virus attacks immune cells.
  • if the body’s immune system is badly damage, it can’t cope with infections and at this stage is is known as aids or HIV.
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9
Q

Tobacco mosaic virus (viral disease)….

A
  • affects manyspecues of plants
  • it causes a mosaic pattern on the leaves of the plants- parts of the leaves become dicoloured.
  • this discolouration means that plant can’t carry out photosynthesis as well, so the virus affects growth.
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10
Q

Rose black spot (fungal disease)…

A
  • its a fungus that causes black/purple spots to develop on leaves of plants.
  • turning leaves yellow and causing them to drop off
  • meaning less photosynthesis so the plant does less growth.
    -Spreads through envrionkent by water/wind.
  • gardeneners can treat the disease by stripping the plant of the affected leaves.
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11
Q

Malaria (disease caused by protist)…

A
  • part of the malarial protist’s life cycle takes place inside mosquito. Mosquitoes are vectors- they pick up the malarial protist when they feed on an infected animal.
  • every time the mosquito feeds on another animal, it infects it by inserting the protist into the animals blood vessels.
  • malaria causes repeating episodes of fever.
  • stopping mosquitos from breeding reduces spread of malaria.
  • people are protected from them by insecticides and mosquito nets
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12
Q

Salmonella (bacterial diseases)…

A
  • causes food poisoning
  • fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea.
  • these symptoms caused by toxins that the bacteria produce.
  • mosf poultry is given a vaccination against it, this controls the spread of it.
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13
Q

Gonorrhea (bacterial disease) …

A
  • a STD
  • passed by sexual contact
  • cause dby bacteria.
  • has pain when urinating. Thick yellow discharge from penis/vag
  • gonorrhoea originally treated with penicilin, but this has become trickier mow because strains of the bsc habe become more resistsnt to it,
  • to prevent spread, people treated with antibiotics and should use barrier methods like contraception.
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14
Q

How can the spread of diseases can be reduced or prevented?…

A

BEING HYGENIC- (washing hands)
DESTROYING VECTORS- vectors that are insects can be killed using insecticides or by destroying their habitat so they can’t breed.
ISOLATING INFECTED INDIVIDUALS- isolating someone prevents passing on.
VACCINATION- vaccinating people and animals prevents development and passing on of disease.

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15
Q

What are a few structures/features the body has to stop pathogens e.t.c entering

A

-Skin- acts as barrier to pathogens. It secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens.
-HAIRS AND MUCUS- in your nose trap particles that could contain pathogens.
- TRACHEA and BRONCHI - secrete mucus to trap pathogens.
- TANCHEA and BRONCHI- lined with cilia, whihc wafts mucus up to back of throat where it is swallowed.
-STOMACH- Produces hydrochloric acid. Killing pathogens that make it that far from mouth

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16
Q

If a pathogen enters the body

A

the immune system tries to destroy the pathogen.

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17
Q

Explain three ways in which white blood cells help to defend against pathogens.

A

PHAGOCYTOSIS:
- white blood cells can engulf foreign cells and digest them.
ANTIBODIES:
- every pathogen has antigens on surface (unique to each path..)
- when WBC come across foreign antivens, they produce antibodies to lock onto invading cells so they can find and destroy- (each antibody is specific to each antigen it locks onto)
- antibodies produced rapidly around body to find any similar bacteria.
- if person is infected with same path again they will produce agai nand destroy
ANTITOXINS- these counteract toxins produced by invading bacteria

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18
Q

Vaccination involves

A

introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of a pathogen into the body to stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies. If the same pathogen re-enters the body the white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies, preventing infection.

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19
Q

Pros and cons of vaccination:

A

Pros:
- helped control lots of communicable diseases that were once common in the Uk (smallpox)
- epidemics - can be prevented if large pop of people are vaccinated - that way people who aren’t vaccinated are unlikely to catch it.
CONS:
- don’t always work and don’t give immunity
- you can have bad reactions to them (fever, swelling)rare though.

20
Q

Explain the role of the drug painkillers (aspirin)

A
  • relieves pain, however don’t tackle the cause of the disease or kill pathogens, they help reduce symptoms.
21
Q

Explain the role of the drug antibiotics (penicillin)

A
  • kills the bacteria causing the problemo without killing your own body cells.
  • different antibiotics kill different types of bacteria,so importante go be treated with the right one.
  • antibiotics don’t destroy viruses, as viruses reproduce inside your body cells, which makes it very difficult to develop drugs that destroy just the virus wihout killing the body’s cells.
22
Q

Explain how bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics?

A
  • bacteria can mutate.
  • if you have an infection, some of the bacteria might be resistant to antibiotics.
  • means that when you treat the infection, only the non-resistsnt strains of bacteria will be killed.
  • individual resistsnt bacteria will survive/reproduce and pop of resistant incrases.
  • this resistant strain may cause serious infection that can’t be treated by antibiotics.
  • to slow down development, doctors must avoid pver-prescribing antibiotics, also they must make sure to finish the whole course of antibiotics
23
Q

Plants produce a variety of _________ to ______ themselves against pests and pathogens. These pathogens can be used as _____ to treat human disease or relieve symptoms

A

Chemicals, defend, drugs

24
Q

Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.

A

• The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves. HDD
• The painkiller aspirin originates from willow. PAkW
• Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium mould. PAF

25
Q

Drug testing: 3 stages:

A

1) PRECLINICAL TESTING:
- drugs tested on human cells and tissues in a lab
- You can’t use human cells/tissues to trst drugs that affect whole or multiple systems so animals are used.
2) PRECLINICAL TESTING - LIVE ANIMALS:
- - Tested on live amimals to test
- efficacy (whether it works and produces the effecf you want).
- toxicity (how harmful it is)
- dosage (concentration that should be given and how often. —- must be tested on two different animals making sure it ain’t dangerous.

3 CLINICAL TRIALS:
- drug tested on small group of healthy human volunteers to check its safety.
- tested on smaller mumbers pf volunter patients who have the illness.
- drug tested on large num. of volunteer patients to monitor drug effectiveness, dosage, toxicity.
- drug is approved and prescribed

26
Q

Open label

A

Where everypne knows who is getting what ddrug

27
Q

Blind:

A

Doc knows who has drug and wh has placebo patient doesn’t

28
Q

Double blind

A

Scientists have to carry out doubke boind trials so no bias.

29
Q

Antibodies are produced by

A

B-lymphocytes - a type of white blood cell

30
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from

A

a single clone of cells. The antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen and so are able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body.

31
Q

What is the cell called when binding a tumour cell and a B- lymphocyte

A

Hybridoma

32
Q

Explain why tumour cells are good to use in monoclonal antibody production

A

As they don’t produce antibodies and divide lots

33
Q

Explain what you do with the hybridoma cell after its been producedo

A

Ypu clone it to get lots of identical cells and these cells prpduce identical antibodies (monoclonal). Then a large amount of the antibody can be collected and purified

34
Q

Explain how the side effects affected the development of monoclonal antibodies

A

Monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected. They are not yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.

35
Q

What hormone is found in urine of women only when pregnant

A

HCG

36
Q

How do pregnancytests work?

A
  • the bit of the stick you wee on has some antibodies to the hormone, with blue beeds attached.
  • the test strip has some more antibodies to the hormone stuck onto it.
  • if your preg and wee on the stick:
    - hormone ninds to antinodies on blue beads
    - urine moves up stick, carrying jormone and beads
    - beads + hormone bind to antibodies on strip
    - so blue beads get stuck on strip, making it blue
  • if your not preg and pee on stick, urine still moves up stick, carrying blue beads.
  • but there is motjing to stick the blue beads onto the test strip so dont turn blue
37
Q

Cancer cells have WHAT on their cell membranes that aren’t found on normal body cells. They’re called what

A

Antigens, tumour markers

38
Q

Explain how monoclonal antibodies treat diseases like cancer

A

-In lab you can make MA that bind to tumour markers.
- an anti-cancer drug can be attached to MA. this might be a radioactive substance, toxic drug or chemical which stood cancer cells growing/dividing
- antibodies are given to patient
- they target specific cells because they only bind to tumour markers,
- the drug kills cancer cells but dont kill normal body cells near tumour

39
Q

Monoclonal antibodies can be used to (in terms of in labs and research):

A
  • bind to hormones and other chemicals in blood to measure their levels
  • test blood samples in labs for certain paths
  • locate soecifc moleclues on a cell or in a tissue
40
Q

Explaon how monoclonal antibodies are used to locate specific molecules on a cell or in a tissue:

A
  • monoclonal antibodies made that will bind to specific molecule
  • antibodies are then bound to a flourescent dye
  • if molecules are present in sample, the monoclonal antibodies attach to them, and they can be detected using the dye
41
Q

Pros and cons of MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES:

A

Ads:
- cancer treatment
- monoclonal antibodies target specifc cells unlike radio/chemo therapy
- side effects of antibody-based drug are lower than for standard chemo or radio
Dis:
- monoclonal antibodies cause side effects like fever,vomiting,low blood pressure

42
Q

Mineral ions are needed from the soil, when there is not enough, they can suffer deficiency symptoms: nitrates and magnesium ions:

A

Nitrates: needed to make proteins and therefore for growth. Lack of them causes stunted growth.

Magnesium ions: needed for making chlorophyll, which is needed for photosynthesis. Plants without enough magnesium suffer from chlorosis and have yellow leaves

43
Q

Common signs that a plant is suffering from disease

A
  • stunted growth
  • abnormal growth
  • spots on the leaves
  • malformed stems/leaves
  • patches of decay
  • discolouration
44
Q

Different plant diseases have different signs. They identify by:

A
  • looking up signs in gardening manual or web
  • taking infected plant to lab, where scientists can identify path
  • ising testing kits that identify pathogen using MA
45
Q

What are the physical defences of a plant

A
  • waxy cuticle = provides bwrrier to stop paths
  • cell walls = physical barrier against path
  • layers of dead cells around stems, act as barrier to stop path
46
Q

What are the chemical defences of plants:

A
  • produce antibacterial chemicals which kill bac
  • producd poisons which deter herbivores
47
Q

Mechanical defences of plants:

A
  • thorns and hairs= stop animals touchin eating them
  • droop or curl= when touched. Meaning it knocks insects off or moving things away
  • mimicacy- some can mimic other organisms which tricks organisms into not eating them

Bio (13 decks)

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