Industrial Organizational Psychology Flashcards
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
original Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Act
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection
created in 1978; use of any test that adversely affects hiring, promotion, or other selection procedures constitutes discrimination; use of test acceptable if test is validated, has utility, and no alternatives are available
Americans with Disabilities Act
1990; bans discrimination in employment, transportation, access to buildings, and discrimination in other settings; requires companies make reasonable accommodations
ADA discrimination
using standards, employment tests or other selection criteria that screen out an individual with a disability or class of individuals with disabilities, unless the test or criteria is shown to be job-related and consistent with business necessity
ADA on substance abuse
prohibits discrimination against someone who has successfully completed or is currently participating in a drug rehabilitation program and is no longer using drugs
GRIGGS VERSUS DUKE POWER COMPANY (1971)
tests that measured broad abilities, in which minority group members passed at much lower rates than Whites, were unfair to use to make decisions of hiring and promotion; requirement was established that tests measure skills necessary for a particular job
Three major problems that result in discrimination
adverse impact, unfairness, differential validity
Adverse impact
one major problem that results in discrimination; based on the 80% or 4/5ths rule, which basically states that the percentage of minorities selected must be at least 4/5ths of the percentage of non-minorities selected
Unfairness
one major problem that results in discrimination; occurs when minorities and non-minorities score differently on the predictor test yet perform similarly on the criterion
Differential validity
one major problem that results in discrimination; occurs when there are significantly different criterion-related validity coefficients for different groups on the same test; test is more valid for predicting performance of one group than for predicting performance of another
Development of human resources
techniques for employee selection, use of psychological tests, performance appraisals, training and development, and career development theories
Job analysis
describes in specific terms the nature of the component tasks performed by workers on a particular job; information about the tools or equipment used, the operations performed, education and training required, wages paid, and any unique aspect of the job such as safety hazards; important for complying with EEO guidelines regarding fair employment
Job description
job tasks
Job specifications
job requirements
Job evaluation
a formal process that determines the financial worth of a specific job to an organization
How data for job analysis is obtained
open-ended or structured interviews; critical incident technique
Critical incident technique
ascertaining the specific actions that lead to desirable (successful) or undesirable (unsuccessful) consequences on the job
Employee selection and screening options
biodata, interviews, tests, assessment centers, and references and letters of recommendation
Biodata
biographical information
Biographical information techniques
standard application blank, the weighted application blank and the biographical inventory
Standard application blank
technique for collecting biographical information; asks for personal data, including education, employment history, etc.
Weighted application blank
technique for collecting biographical information; similar to the standard application in form and content however it assigns weights to certain variables (e.g. college versus non college graduates) that then affect the hiring process)
Biographical inventory blank
technique for collecting biographical information; covers the applicants life in greater detail; questions correlated with desirable and undesirable work behaviors, validated against specific criterion; very good predictors of job performance; not often used because development can be time consuming and costly
Interviews
have worst criterion-related validity of employee screening and selection options; better if structured, multiple interviewers, interviewers trained
Interviewer biases
first impression, negative information, the contrast effect, interviewer prejudices, halo effect
Halo effect
generalizing from one characteristic to the entire candidate in either a positive or negative direction; common example is attractiveness
Cognitive ability tests
tests of cognitive ability (e.g., Wonderlic Personnel Test) and aptitude (e.g., typing test) are common and tend to be good predictors of job success; however, may result in discrimination
Personality tests
poor predictors of job performance
Interest tests
poor predictors of job success; do correlate with job satisfaction
Work sample tests
candidate demonstrates sample work behavior; high content and criterion-related validity; tend to be more valid for minorities compared to other types of tests
Test batteries
used almost exclusively in upper management; good predictors of job performance
Assessment Center
method of selection that places new job applicants and candidates for promotion in a simulated job situation so that their behaviors under stress can be observed or evaluated; situational testing; first used in German army in 1920s; good criterion-related validity; usually 6-12 candidates at a time, over several days
Major assessment center techniques
in-basket technique, leaderless group discussion
References and letters of recommendation
often misleading
Employee selection procedures
multiple regression approach; multiple cutoff; multiple hurdle
Multiple cutoff
noncompensatory approach; only applicants who meet or exceed cutoff on each predictor considered
Multiple hurdle
noncompensatory approach; predictors applied in particular order, must pass cutoff score on first predictor to continue in selection process; efficient technique
Performance is a function of
ability, motivation, opportunity
Types of performance appraisals
objective, subjective, focused on results rather than merits
Objective methods of performance evaluation
easily observable and quantifiable categories (e.g., quantity of output, number of errors, accidents, absenteeism)
Subjective methods of performance evaluations
ratings that can be comparative or individual/absolute
Straight rankings
comparative method of performance evaluation in which workers listed from best to worst
Forced distribution
comparative method of performance evaluation in which people are ranked to fit a distribution
Paired comparison
comparative method of performance evaluation in which each employee is compared to every other employee in pairs
Graphic rating scales
individual/absolute method of performance evaluation which involves ratings on several aspects of a job
BARS (behaviorally anchored rating scales)
individual/absolute method of performance evaluation in which behavioral anchors are based on critical incidents; scale development is expensive and time consuming; does not tend to measure actual day-to-day activities, rather hypothetical situations
BOS (behavioral observation scale)
individual/absolute method of performance evaluation which rates extent to which person engages in every behavior
Management by objectives
mutual agreement between employees and supervisors on goals to be achieved in given time; actively involves employees in own evaluation; two phases: goal-setting and performance review; effective in increasing motivation and productivity
Instrument errors in evaluation
deficiency errors, contamination errors
Deficiency errors
instrument error in evaluation that involves excluding important aspects of job from evaluation
Contamination errors
instrument error in evaluation that involves rating an employee on non-important aspects of job
Rater errors in evaluation
task-based rater biases and ratee-based biases
Task-based rater biases
errors that occur when rater adopts evaluative set based on task (e.g., strictness set, leniency set, tendency set)
Strictness set
task-based rater bias in evaluation; rater is overly strict and gives everyone low rating
Leniency set
task-based rater bias in evaluation; rater is overly lenient and gives everyone high ratings
Central tendency set
task-based rater bias in evaluation; rater tends to rate everyone as about average
Ratee-based biases
halo error and personal biases in evaluation
Recency biases
tendency of evaluator to be most influenced by employee’s recent behaviors
Attribution errors
tendency of supervisors to attribute poor performance to internal factors for workers they don’t like and to external factors for workers they do like
Hiring decision evaluation error
supervisors tend to rate employees higher when supervisor participated in hiring decision
Strategies to improve employee ratings
training raters with the instruments to be used, using multiple raters, having raters rate on an ongoing basis rather than once or twice a year, and basing performance on clear and specific performance standards obtained through a job analysis
Frame of reference (FOR) training
raters are provided with clear and specific criteria (i.e., references) for what constitutes the different levels of performance (e.g., outstanding, good, average, etc.); successful strategy for reducing rater error
Types of training
non-participative training, individual participative training, group participative training
Programmed instruction
individual participative training; makes use of booklets, interactive videotapes, and complex computer software; involves graduated presentation of material with feedback at each step; commonly involves self-instruction; often for training large number of trainees in short period of time
Computer assisted instruction (CAI)
individual participative training; also called computer based training; derivative of programmed instruction that is computer based
Group participative training
discussion, role-playing, business games, sensitivity training, in-basket training, and behavioral modeling
Psychological factors affecting training
individual differences, pre-training expectations; motivation; active versus passive practice; massed versus distributed (spaced) practice; whole and part learning; transfer of training; feedback; reinforcement
Individual differences in training
can be predicted through cognitive tests, biographical data, attitude measures, and work samples; training does not always equalizes differences in ability, may magnify
Pre-training expectations
individuals with low sense of self-efficacy are less receptive than those with high sense of self-efficacy
Motivation in training
can be increased by involving trainees in decisions about training program, allowing them to participate in needs assessment, giving choice of training courses; motivation affected by sense of job involvement and locus of control
Whole and part learning
slow learners may be better able to learn new material when presented in smaller units
Transfer of training
application of training material to work setting; two strategies include overlearning and identical elements
Overlearning
develop very thorough knowledge of a task; helps with transfer of training; useful for tasks infrequently performed or performed under conditions of stress
Identical elements
similarity between training situation and actual work situation; helps with transfer of training
Feedback in training
people learn best with feedback; should be offered early and often
Reinforcement in training
affects speed of learning; greater the reward, more rapidly behavior is learned; initially continuous, later thinned
Structural career development theories
focus on individual traits and occupational tasks (e.g., Holland’s theory)
Developmental career development theories
focus on development across the life span (e.g., Super’s theory)
Holland’s theory
Holland’s personality-job fit theory; individuals and job traits can be matched, close matches will correlate with job success and satisfaction; formula for successful career planning: knowing oneself and having information about world of work
Holland’s typology
personality and work environments classified into six types: realistic investigative artistic social enterprising and conventional (RIASEC); can receive up to three codes, first most dominant; can be organized in hexagon with adjacent themes most similar
Realistic (Holland’s typology)
prefer physical activities that require skill, strength, coordination
Investigative (Holland’s typology)
prefer activities that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding
Artistic (Holland’s typology)
prefer ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression
Social (Holland’s typology)
prefer activities that involve helping and developing others
Enterprising (Holland’s typology)
prefer activities with opportunity to influence others and obtain power
Conventional (Holland’s typology)
prefers rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities
Congruence (Holland’s theory)
degree of match between personality type and work environment; correlates with longevity at job
Consistency (Holland’s theory)
how closely an individual’s first two letters are on hexagon; correlated with stability in work
Differentiation (Holland’s theory)
distinctness of a profile; more an individual is represented by one personality type, more distinct profile is; correlates with predictability of behavior
Environmental identity (Holland’s theory)
individual’s view that work environment has clear and stable system of goals and rewards
Vocational identity (Holland’s theory)
clarity and stability of individual’s own goals and interests; correlates with making decisions more easily and with greater confidence
Super’s theory
life/career rainbow; posits that career decision-making involves range of changes and decisions from career entry to retirement; five major stages of career development; concept of career maturity; career decisions determined by socioeconomic factors, individual abilities, personal characteristics, opportunities to which persons are exposed; career viewed as combination of eight life roles
Super’s five major stages of career development
growth (to age 14), exploratory (15 - 24), establishment (25 - 44), maintenance (45 - 64), and decline or disengagement (65+)
Career maturity
based in Super’s theory; individual’s ability to effectively master the tasks of a given stage in preparation for moving to the next stage
Life roles (Super’s theory)
son/daughter, learner, worker, spouse/friend, homemaker, parent/grandparent, leisurite, and citizen
Self-concepts (Super)
proposed individuals express their self-concepts through choice of vocation
Kumboltz’s theory
social learning theory; developmental theory of career decision making; career development based on social learning, environmental conditions and events, genetic influences and learning experiences; people choose careers based on what they have learned through modeling and reinforcement
Tiedman & O’hara’s Theory
theory of career development that focuses on processes of differentiation and integration; self-awareness key variable in this theory; focuses on critical role decision-making plays; two stages to every decision: anticipation and implementation/adjustment
Differentiation (Tiedman & O’Hara’s theory)
making distinctions about different aspects of oneself (e.g. characteristics) and the environment (e.g., seeing various aspects of a particular job instead of just one factor)
Integration (Tiedman & O’Hara’s theory)
unifying different aspects of oneself and the environment, results in making better decisions, setting more refined goals, developing more useful plans
Schein’s theory
Career Anchor Theory; person’s self-concept acts as anchor, determining future occupational decisions; self-concepts or “career anchors” revolve around eight categories
Schein’s career anchors
eight categories: autonomy/independence, security/stability, technical/ functional competence, general managerial competence , entrepreneurial creativity, service/dedication to a cause, pure challenge, and lifestyle
Scientific management
predominant philosophy in early 20th century; espoused by Frederick Taylor; views workers as extensions of machines with goal of increasing productivity; little consideration to employees as human beings with needs, abilities, or interests; workers considered lazy and dishonest, low intelligence
Human relations management approach
predominant today; arose in 1920s and 1930s under impact of Hawthorne studies which focused on worker rather than production
Hawthorne studies
set out to study effects of environmental factors on productivity; leaders allowed workers to set production pace, form social groups, and talk on job; workers’ views solicited; found psychological factors more important in increasing productivity than physical aspects of work environment; importance of informal work groups, workers considered adhering to group’s norms more important than extra pay for company standards
Hawthorne effect
productivity increased simply because workers are observed
Theory X
McGregor (1960) name for scientific management approach; assumes workers are lazy and must be coerced and directed since they have no ambition and no sense of responsibility; underlies typical bureaucracies
Theory Y
McGregor (1960) name for human relations approach; assumes that people find satisfaction with their work, and that control and punishment are not necessary to bring about good performance; people are industrious and creative, seeking challenge and responsibility; function best under participative leadership style
Theory Z
described in Ouchi’s 1981 book; highlights three critical Japanese management strategies: lifelong employment with an emphasis on loyalty, slow promotion with an emphasis on non-specialized career paths, and high levels of group decision making
Trait theories of leadership
initial approach when studying leadership; based on the assumption that there is a universal set of traits that can always distinguish good leaders from poor leaders, regardless of the situation; research provides limited and inconsistent support; meta-analyses indicate important characteristics are drive, leader motivation, honesty and integrity, self-confidence and emotional stability, high cognitive ability, and knowledge of industry and company; compare authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire leaders
Situational theories of leadership
effectiveness of leadership is contingent upon organization; contingency theories of leadership
Fielder’s Contingency Theory
LPC Theory (1967); situational theory of leadership; involves three steps: whether leader is task- or relationship- oriented using least preferred co-worker (LPC), situational control/favorableness assessed, predicts low LPCS most effective in highly favorable or unfavorable situations and high LPCs most effective in moderately favorable situations
High LPC
Fielder’s Contingency Theory; if leader rates least preferred coworker with high rating, leader is termed high LPC leader and considered to be relationship oriented
Low LPC
Fielder’s Contingency Theory; if leader rates least preferred coworker with a poor rating, considered low LPC leader and thought to be task-oriented
Situational control
Fielder’s Contingency Theory; also called favorableness; how likely it is that task will be accomplished; affected by how easy or difficult the task is, how powerful the leader is, and the relationship between the leader and the subordinates
Cognitive resource theory
Fielder & Garcia (1987); situational/contingency theory of leadership; developed in response to criticism to the LPC theory; whether directive versus non-directive leadership style more effective depending on cognitive resources (ability) of employees plus stress levels, experience of the leader, and group support for the leader
Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Model
1973; situational/contingency theory of leadership; focuses on decision-making and degree to which leader allows subordinates to participate; five leadership styles; most effective depends on importance of the decision, the degree to which subordinates accept it, and the time required to make the decision
Vroom and Yetton’s five leadership styles
autocratic, consultative, group decision making with the leader, group decision making without the leader, and autocratic with information
House’s Path-Goal Theory
1971; situational/contingency theory of leadership; recommends that the leader increase personal payoffs for subordinates and make the paths to the payoffs easier by clarifying and reducing roadblocks; finding out what each employee finds rewarding, assessing the employee’s strengths and weaknesses, and helping the employee to achieve his or her goals
Path-Goal Theory leadership styles
directive, supportive, achievement oriented, and participative
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
situational/contingency theory of leadership; employee’s readiness to perform; if not ready, leader should tell them what to do; if are more ready, need less task orientation from leader
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership styles
(corresponding to degrees of readiness) telling, selling, participating, delegating
Bernard Bass
distinguished between transactional and transformational leaders
Transactional leader
more traditional leader who influences subordinates through daily, fairly emotionless exchanges; aims to secure the agreed upon level of performance from the subordinates and may make use of rewards, management by objectives, and other conventional means.
Transformational leaders
aims to broaden and elevate the goals of the subordinates; utilize charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration
Five types of power in willingness to comply with leader’s request
reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, expert power; presence of combination of expert and referent power (sometimes called incremental power) is most important for complying with requests; coercive most negatively correlated with satisfaction
Reward power
based on position power; based on ability to provide rewards
Coercive power
based on position power; based on ability to punish
Coercive power
based on position power; based on ability to punish
Legitimate power
based on position power; based on hierarchy of organization
Referent power
based on personal power; based on identifying with, admiring, or liking the person in the leadership position
Expert power
based on personal power; comes from expertise and skills in relevant area
Rational-economic model
also called classical approach; model of decision making involving basing decisions on clear definition of problem, knowing all choices and consequences, and choosing optimal solution
Administrative approach
model of decision making; also called satisficing style; Herbert Simon; used when problems are ambiguous, only partial knowledge is available, and the first satisfactory alternative is chosen
Herbert Simon
administrative approach/satisficing style
Types of conflict
intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, interorganization
Conflict resolution types
lose-lose approach typical with compromise, a win-lose approach common with competition or authority, or a win-win approach typical in collaborative and problem-solving situations
Types of negotiation
two-party, group, intergroup, or among constituencies (e.g., management versus labor)
Distributive negotiation
parties claiming part of the pie
Integrative/principled negotiation
attempting to enlarge the pie (rather than claiming parts)
Arbitration
third party who acts as “ judge” and issues a binding decision after listening to both parties
Types of theories of motivation
need or content theories, cognitive or process theories, and the reinforcement model
Maslow’s need hierarchy
need theory of motivation; needs arranged in hierarchy of importance; little research support and is judged to have low scientific validity and applicability in the workplace
Levels of Maslow’s hierarchy
physiological, safety, belonging and love (social), esteem, and self-actualization
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
need theory of motivation; also known as Motivator-Hygiene theory (1966); extends Maslow; different factors account for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction; divides needs into upper and lower level needs; lead to concepts of job enrichment and job enlargement
Lower level needs (Herzberg’s theory)
also called hygiene factors or dissatisfiers; relate to job context, such as pay, working conditions, supervision, etc; not meeting them can cause dissatisfaction, but meeting them does not produce satisfaction
Upper level needs (Herzberg’s theory)
also called motivators or satisfiers; relate to job content and include needs for achievement, responsibility, and opportunity; meeting them produces satisfaction, but not meeting them does not cause dissatisfaction
Job enrichment
expanding jobs to give employees a greater role in planning, and performing their work, thus providing an opportunity to build satisfiers into job content; increased satisfaction and performance, decreased turnover and decreased absenteeism; also called “vertical loading”; individual preferences, those in favor of it tending to be high in growth-need strength, knowledge and skill, and tending to be most satisfied by job content factors
Vertical loading
Another name for job enrichment
Job enlargement
expands the variety of tasks the employee performs without increasing responsibility or autonomy; increases satisfaction but only slightly affects job performance; also known as “horizontal loading”
Horizontal loading
another name for job enlargement
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
need theory of motivation; based on Maslow; needs based on existence, relatedness, and growth; needs not hierarchical, all may influence person at same time; principle of frustration-regression; satisfying a need may make need even stronger; greater empirical support; people with educated parents have higher growth needs, women have lower existence needs and higher relatedness needs compared to men
Frustration-regression principle
if a person is frustrated, he or she will move towards previously met need
McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
need theory of motivation; 1950s; resulted from experimenting with TAT; three significant work related needs are nACH, nAFF, nPOWER; needs acquired over time
nACH
McClellan’s Acquired Needs Theory; need for achievement, desire to do something better, solve problems, master tasks; can be trained and correlates with success of company; favor environment where they can assume responsibility for problem solving, setting moderate attainable goals, and needing recognition and feedback about their progress.
nAFF
McClellan’s Acquired Needs Theory; need for affiliation, desire to establish and maintain friendly relations
nPOWER
McClellan’s Acquired Needs Theory; desire to control, influence, and be responsible for others
General Expectancy Theory
cognitive theory of motivation; also called Vroom’s Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory; people behave based on perceived expectancy that rewards will follow; in workplace employees perform at level that results in greatest payoff; three facets are expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory
General Expectancy Theory; cognitive theory of motivation; people behave based on perceived expectancy that rewards will follow; in workplace employees perform at level that results in greatest payoff; three facets are expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
Expectancy
expectancy of success on task (how likely efforts will result in desired achievement); General Expectancy/VIE Theory
Instrumentality
anticipation of rewards; employees consider probability that rewards will follow accomplishment or performance; General Expectancy/VIE Theory
Valence
value rewards have for employees; employees determine how much they value offered rewards; General Expectancy/VIE Theory
Adam’s Equity Theory
cognitive theory of motivation; 1965; ratio of self-inputs/self outcomes versus others’ inputs/outcomes; based on social comparison theory; inequity is motivating state, adjust performance based on things appearing fair or unfair
Locke’s Goal Setting Approach
cognitive theory of motivation; 1968; based on five principles: goals should be specific, goals she be intermediate to high difficulty, workers must receive feedback, sense of self-efficacy will increase performance, employees must accept goals
Reinforcement model of motivation
set of principles according to which people perform actions that have rewarding outcomes, avoid actions that have punishing outcomes, and stop performing actions that have neither rewarding nor punishing outcomes; performance-contingent rewards strongly correlated with performance and satisfaction; non-performance contingent rewards and punishment not strongly linked with reward and satisfaction
Job satisfaction & genetic factors
up to 30-40% of job satisfaction may be linked to genetic factors
Age and job satisfaction
satisfaction increases with age
Gender and job satisfaction
no clear relationship
Race and job satisfaction
Whites report more job satisfaction, differences most significant among managers
Occupational level and job satisfaction
higher occupational level associated with higher job satisfaction
Health and job satisfaction
job dissatisfaction associated with physical and mental health
Productivity and job satisfaction
weak positive correlation
Absenteeism/turnover and job satisfaction
moderate negative correlation
Pay and job satisfaction
positive correlation, especially with fairness of pay
Sex and absenteeism
higher among females, strongest correlation
Company size and absenteeism
less in smaller companies
Age and absenteeism
older works have more unavoidable absences but fewer avoidable absences and decreased turnover
Tenure and turnover
tenure and expressed interest to stay are most strongly correlated with turnover (negative)
Pay/opportunity for promotion and turnover
negative correlation
Routine work and turnover
positive association
Productivity and turnover
no association
Job-related factors
job-related factors such as approach company takes also affect motivation and satisfaction
Human factors approach (job design)
concerned with physical aspects of job; Time and motion studies address ways to maximize speed and minimize wasted movement; focus on “operator-machine system,” how humans and machines work together to accomplish a job
Psychological approach (job design)
assumes that efficiency and effectiveness are correlated with satisfaction, and that satisfaction allows people to meet self-actualization needs; includes job enlargement and job enrichment
Common organizational structures
traditional, project, team, multidimensional; trend is moving away from traditional toward multidimensional, sharing authority and decision-making
Project organizational structure
centered on specific products or services (e.g., focused on emergency medicine/surgery/education rather than disciplines of physicians/nurses/support staff)
Team organizational structure
centered on work teams or groups that report to upper level managers
Multidimensional organizational structure
more than one type of structure (e.g., both traditional and team)
Participative organizational style
Lawler 1986; three assumptions of human relations (people want to participate), human resources (people are valuable resource because have knowledge and ideas), and high involvement (people can be trusted to develop knowledge and skills to make important decisions about management and their work )
Quality-of-Work-Life Programs (QWL)
participative programs intended to improve the quality of working life; Workers involved in teams that meet weekly to discuss problems in their areas of responsibility; greater effect on satisfaction than performance
Quality Control Circles (QCC)
not concerned with quality of work life but with specific ways to improve finished product and level of production; may enhance satisfaction, but goal is improved quantity and quality of production; key principle: workers must be given greater responsibility for their work and must be allowed to participate in decisions affecting the nature of the work and the way it is performed; 7-10 employees from same department; membership voluntary; increases production and satisfaction, decreases absenteeism and turnover
Organizational development
focuses on total organizational change and systematic ways to bring about planned change; goal is to assist organization to adapt to changing work environment, improve ability to respond to future changes, and to help employees develop new sense of purpose for organization; takes systems approach; outside consultants; implementation begins with top management; process goals of communication, interaction, decision-making; outcome goal to increase task performance; difficult to evaluate empirically
Centralized communication networks
one person in middle gets all information; best for simple tasks, result in rapid communication
Decentralized communication networks
all members can communicate with one another; best for problem-solving and communication; result in slower communication; satisfaction greatest in less centralized networks (individual satisfaction associated with centrality of one’s position)
Social loafing
also called Ringelmann effect, people don’t work as hard in a group as on their own
Ringelmann effect
social loafing
Informal groups
do not receive “official” designation to serve specific purpose; can shape employee attitudes, behavior, and productivity; can work for or against company; social loafing; tend to attract and retain people with similar personalities; greater group cohesiveness, greater power over members and pressure to conform; being part of group can increase job satisfaction, decrease turnover, absenteeism, strain
Factors that affect group cohesiveness
group size (smaller more cohesive), outside pressures and threats (increase cohesiveness), diversity (decreases cohesiveness), team rewards (increases), difficulty to join (increases), and frequent interactions (increases)
Stages of group development
forming, storming (conflicts over leadership), norming (initial integration), performing (total integration) and adjourning
Types of group tasks
additive, disjunctive, conjunctive
Additive tasks
group members’ separate performances are added to produce a combined effect
Disjunctive tasks
outcome affected by performance of most effective group members
Conjunctive tasks
group’s accomplishment limited by least effective member
Group effectiveness and group decision making
groups make better decisions than individuals when problem has multiple parts susceptible to division of labor; heterogenous groups make better decisions but may have cohesion problems; ideal size is 5-7; in situations requiring deliberation, even number more effective; work best when common goals are more important to members than individual goals
Brainstorming
technique for improving group decision-making; superior to open group discussion when goals involve creative thinking; better solutions when brainstorm alone
Risky shift
tendency for people in groups to make riskier decisions than if deciding as individual; as a result, groups can be more creative and innovative
Response polarization
also known as group polarization; tendency of people in groups to become more extreme in their views
Groupthink
occurs in highly cohesive groups when group members seek concurrence, consensus, and unanimity more than they seek the best possible alternative
Temperature/humidity and job performance
performance declines as temperature increases and as humidity increases; affects quantity and quality of production
Illumination (job environment)
inadequate lighting source of distress; optimal levels vary based on task; most people feel better with several lamps rather than one overhead light
Noise (job environment)
prolonged exposures to over 85 dB can result in some hearing loss; exposures to over 120 dB can cause temporary deafness; and even brief exposures to over 130 dB can cause permanent deafness; Most people can adapt to constant or continuous noises, but intermittent noise is more distracting; perception of ability to control noise more important than actual ability
Color (job environment)
affect emotions; Blues and greens (cool colors) are soothing; red causes excitement; yellow and orange (warm colors) cause alertness; and gray is depressing
Music (job environment)
music increase production slightly for assembly line jobs that are repetitive and simple; no evidence for more demanding work
Relation between nominal and actual working hours
when nominal hours (hours at job) increase, working hours (hours spent getting work done) decrease
Compressed work weeks
e.g., four ten-hour workdays; used by about 20% of workforce; decreased anxiety, decreased turnover, increased satisfaction; drawbacks are fatigue and possible customer complaints due to unavailable personnel; effect on productivity mixed (initially positive, wear off over time)
Flextime
utilized by about 40% of workforce; mixed findings: may increase morale and productivity and decrease lateness, absenteeism, and turnover, or no differences in productivity or satisfaction
Rest break
increase morale and productivity, reduce fatigue and boredom; maximum effect in fourth and eight hour
Shift work
preference for day work; increased error and decreased output at night; night shifts and rotating shifts detrimental to health
OSHA
1970, regulates health and safety; 6,000,000 work-related accidents per year, 10,000-14,000 deaths; safety incentive programs work best; Safety education and training programs are most effective when there is practice, feedback, and reinforcement
