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EPPP > Biological Bases > Flashcards

Biological Bases Flashcards

1
Q

Central nervous system

A

brain, spinal cord

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2
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

nerves going to and from spinal cord

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3
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary motor movement of the skeletal (striated) muscles; part of PNS

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4
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

controls automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glands, including digestion, heart rate, and breathing; maintains homeostasis; part of PNS; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

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5
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

mobilizing, fight or flight; hormones released in bloodstream to increase respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure and decreases in the processes of digestion and elimination; part of ANS

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6
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

energy conserving, relaxed; basic body maintenance, slowing heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, and increasing digestion and elimination; part of ANS

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7
Q

Afferent neurons

A

sensory neurons that carry information to CNS

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8
Q

Efferent neurons

A

motor neurons carry information from CNS to muscles and glands

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9
Q

Spinal cord regions (top to bottom)

A

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral

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10
Q

Quadriplegia

A

paralysis of all four limbs; spinal cord severed C1-C5

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11
Q

Paraplegia

A

Paralysis of legs; spinal cord severed C6 downward
Severing at C6-C7 = paraplegia and partial paralysis of arms

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12
Q

Paresis

A

muscle weakness, may result from incomplete severing of spinal cord

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13
Q

Reflexes with spinal cord damage

A

reflexes still intact

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14
Q

Cerebrum

A

made of cerebral cortex and subcortical areas

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15
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

part of cerebrum; outside surface of brain; not fully developed at birth; divided into hemispheres and lobes

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16
Q

Left hemisphere

A

often dominant (and therefore control language for most people); thinking that is rational, analytical, logical, abstract

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17
Q

Right hemisphere

A

perceptual, visuospatial , artistic, musical, and intuitive activities; emotion

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18
Q

Frontal lobes

A

personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning and initiative, abstract thinking, judgment, and higher mental functions (e.g., cognitive flexibility)
Back contains motor control area
Broca’s area in left frontal lobe - controls muscles that produce speech

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19
Q

Broca’s area

A

In left frontal lobe, controls muscles that produce speech

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20
Q

Parietal lobes

A

just behind frontal lobes; contain the primary sensory areas that process somatosensory information (light touch, pain , heat, and proprioception)

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21
Q

Gerstmann’s syndrome

A

involves lesions of the dominant parietal lobe and results in agraphia, acalculia, right-left disorientation, and finger agnosia

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22
Q

Occipital lobes

A

back of brain, primary visual cortex

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23
Q

Temporal lobes

A

outsides above temples; primary auditory cortex; emotional behavior and memory; Wernicke’ s area is responsible for thinking about and interpreting language

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24
Q

Subcortical brain areas

A

Center of the brain and surrounded by cerebral cortex; include the corpus callosum, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the limbic system

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25
Q

Corpus callosum

A

bridge between cerebral hemispheres allowing communication; part of subcortical areas

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26
Q

Split-brain patients

A

corpus callosum severed to reduce seizures

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27
Q

Thalamus

A

below corpus callosum; major sensory relay center (except smell), integrates and pr

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28
Q

Hypothalamus

A

below thalamus; homeostasis through regulating endocrine system; temperature regulation , hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, and the sleep-wake cycle; sex hormone secretion
“ Five F’ s,” namely fever, feeding, fornicating, fighting, and falling asleep
Includes Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

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29
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

controls the body’s circadian rhythm

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30
Q

Pituitary

A

controlled by hypothalamus; referred to as master endocrine gland; releases hormones to activate adrenal glands; involved in normal and abnormal growth; influences the other endocrine glands including the thyroid, parathyroid, ovaries and testes, pancreas, adrenal cortex, and adrenal medulla

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31
Q

Limbic system

A

group of interconnected structures involved with emotional behavior, particularly aggression; these structures include the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala, the septum, parts of the thalamus, and parts of the frontal and temporal lobes

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32
Q

Stimulating amygdala

A

results in aggression

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33
Q

Stimulating septum

A

moderating effect on aggression

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34
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

removal of amygdala; placidity, apathy, hyperphagia, hypersexuality, and agnosias

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35
Q

Septal rage

A

damaged to septum

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36
Q

Hippocampus

A

consolidation of memory

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37
Q

Cerebellum

A

base of brain behind brain stem; maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity; automatic posture adjustments to maintain balance

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38
Q

Brain stem

A

below the subcortical regions and in front of the cerebellum; includes pons, medulla, and reticular activating system (RAS )

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39
Q

Pons

A

upper portion of brain stem; with medulla, involved in facial expressions, sleep (including initiation of REM sleep), respiration , movement, and cardiovascular activity

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40
Q

Medulla

A

bottom of brain stem just above spinal cord; with pons, involved in facial expressions, sleep (including initiation of REM sleep), respiration , movement, and cardiovascular activity

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41
Q

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A

diffuse set of cells in the medulla, pons, hypothalamus, and thalamus that serve as filter for incoming sensory information; stimulation activates cortex into alert wakefulness

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42
Q

Dendrites

A

receive information from other neurons; neurons may have hundreds or thoughts

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43
Q

Cell body

A

soma; integrates information from dendrites

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44
Q

Soma

A

Cell body

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45
Q

Axon

A

transmits information from neuron

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46
Q

Boutons

A

terminal buttons of axon

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47
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

neuron cannot fire

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48
Q

Relative refractory period

A

follows absolute refractory period; only very intense stimulation causes firing

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49
Q

Classical neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine (ACh), Catecholamines, Serotonin (5-HT), Amino Acids

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50
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Most common neurotransmitter; involved in voluntary movement and memory and cognition
Prevalent in hippocampus → deficiency in Alzheimer’s

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51
Q

Catecholamines

A

main ones are dopamine and norepinephrine; synthesized from dietary tyrosine and phenylalanine

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52
Q

Serotonin (5-HT)

A

mood disorders, aggression, sexual activity, sleep onset, pain perception, and possibly schizophrenia; dietary modification of tryptophan; dysregulation associated with suicidailty and impulsivity

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53
Q

Amino Acids

A

GABA, Glycine, Glutamate

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54
Q

Agonist

A

any substance that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter

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55
Q

Antagonist

A

any substance that inhibits the neurotransmitter effect

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56
Q

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

schizophrenia caused by excess of dopamine; until recently all antipsychotics were dopamine antagonists, blocked postsynaptic receptors; questioned because new antipsychotics don’t work this way

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57
Q

Substantia nigra

A

Produces dopamine, part of basal ganglia
Parkinson’s Disease involves degeneration of this region; L-Dopa (precursor of dopamine) used to treat

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58
Q

Basal ganglia

A

involved in regulating voluntary movement

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59
Q

Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

A

catecholamine/classical neurotransmitter; involved in mood, pain perception, sleep

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60
Q

Catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders

A

depression associated with relative deficiency of catecholamines (especially norepinephrine), mania associated with catecholamine excess

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61
Q

Permissive hypothesis of serotonin functioning

A

deficiency in serotonin permits the expression of affective disorders, but is not sufficient in and of itself; both depression and mania characterized by low serotonin

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62
Q

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) & Glycine

A

major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS, and they have a calming effect
Insufficient levels associated with anxiety

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63
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

GABA agonists, increasing levels

64
Q

Glutamate

A

major mediator of fast excitatory synaptic transmission
Abnormal glutamate transmission suspected in schizophrenia

65
Q

Peptide neurotransmitters

A

Over 25
Regulation of pain and stress
Includes endogenous opioids

66
Q

Hypopituitarism

A

syndrome from undersecretion of pituitary hormones; in children can cause dwarfism, pubertal delay; in adults, can cause gonadal failure and other disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism, diabetes, adrenocortical insufficiency)

67
Q

Hyperpituitarism

A

startling skeletal overgrowth including acromegaly, which occurs after puberty, and gigantism, which occurs before puberty

68
Q

Thyroid gland

A

controls metabolism through secretion of the hormone thyroxin

69
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

weight loss despite increased appetite, heat sensitivity, sweating, diarrhea, tremor and palpitations, fatigue, agitated depression, insomnia, impaired memory and judgment, and can even involve hallucinations and delusions

70
Q

Hypothyroidism

A

unexplained weight gain, sluggishness, fatigue, impaired memory and intellectual functioning, and sensitivity to cold; As the disorder progresses myxedematous symptoms appear (dry skin, puffiness, sparse hair, decreased cardiac output); most severe form can involve personality changes, paranoid delusions, delirium, mania, and hallucinations

71
Q

Grave’s disease

A

most common form of hyperthyroidism; an immune system disorder that results in the overproduction of thyroid hormones

72
Q

Myxedema madness

A

most severe form of hypothyroidism; can involve personality changes, paranoid delusions, delirium, mania, and hallucinations

73
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

secretion of calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium retention

74
Q

Hyperparathyroidism

A

hypercalcemia with resultant delirium, depression, apathy and personality changes, psychosis, and stupor or coma

75
Q

Hypoparathyroidism

A

neuromuscular symptoms, ranging from parasthesias (tingling) to tetany (including cramps and convulsions); personality changes and delirium

76
Q

Pancreas

A

secretes insulin

77
Q

Diabetes Mellitus Type I

A

called Juvenile Onset or Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM); more serious; associated with difficulty maintaining good control in adolescence

78
Q

Diabetes Mellitus Type II

A

Adult Onset, Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)

79
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

A

relatively rare, can be caused by lithium toxicity; imbalance in fluids, pee a lot, feel thirsty

80
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

corticosteroids that are involved in the use of energy resources, the inhibition of antibody formation, and inflammation

81
Q

Addison’s disease

A

Undersecretion of corticosteroids, or adrenal insufficiency; symptoms of apathy, weakness, irritability, depression, and gastrointestinal disturbance

82
Q

Cushing’s disease

A

Oversecretion of corticosteroids; symptoms of agitated depression, irritability and emotional lability, difficulties with memory and concentration, and even suicide; adiposity (swelling and fattening) of the face, neck, and trunk

83
Q

Hypoglycemia

A

abnormally low blood sugar; nervousness, irritability, trembling, cold sweats, fatigue, rapid heart rate, hunger, headache, and confusion

84
Q

Hyperglycemia

A

high blood sugar; frequent in diabetes; increased thirst and urination, dehydration, fatigue and weakness, abdominal pain, nausea, and loss of appetite

85
Q

Cognitive disorders

A

includes the effects of stroke, trauma, and brain tumors, as well as dementia, delirium, and amnestic disorders

86
Q

Aphasia

A

language disorder, and results from damage (also called lesions) in the left hemisphere

87
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

lesions to the left frontal lobe, specifically to the motor strip area, which controls the muscles that produce speech; severe problems with articulation; short phrases punctuated by lengthy pauses; comprehension mostly intact (challenges with passive grammatical constructions); expressive or motor aphasia

88
Q

Dysarthria

A

severe problems with articulation

89
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

lesions in left temporal lobe; no language comprehension; speak fluently but complete nonsense; unaware of problem, expect others to understand; receptive or sensory aphasia

90
Q

Conduction aphasia

A

lesions in the connections between the expressive and receptive speech areas; intact language comprehension, speak fluently, but are unable to repeat verbal phrases; speak fluently but make no sense; able to execute verbal commands because still understand language

91
Q

Global aphasia

A

damage to much of cortex, most language functions impaired (fluency, comprehension, repetition, naming, reading, and writing)

92
Q

One-sided neglect

A

damage occurs to one side of brain; neglect occurs secondary to sensory losses (e.g., forgetting to dress one side of body, eating food from one side of plate)

93
Q

Apraxia

A

inability to carry out purposeful motor movements (e.g., waving), despite the absence of motor or sensory deficits; can move limbs normally but innervates the wrong muscles, puts the limbs in an incorrect position or omits some element of action when asked to carry out a specific motor command; believed to be associated with left brain lesion

94
Q

Agraphia

A

impairment in the ability to write, acquired after the person has learned to write; deficits in a variety of aspects of writing including spelling, word selection, grammar or spatial arrangement; left hemisphere damage in variety of regions (frontal lobe, temporal or parietal regions, and basal ganglia)

95
Q

Alexia

A

acquired partial or complete inability to read; most common cause is stroke to dominant hemisphere; pure alexia (without agraphia) associated with lesions that disconnect the visual association cortex from the temporoparietal cortices

96
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

inability to recognize a familiar face; occurs both retrograde (the inability to recognize the faces of previously known individuals) and anterograde (the inability to learn new faces); thought due to injury to areas of visual cortex

97
Q

Anosognosia

A

lack of awareness of nature of one’s illness

98
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

pathological accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain’ s ventricles, causing increased intracranial pressure; over-production or malabsorption of CSF, malabsorption more common; symptoms include dementia, urinary incontinence, or an unsteady gait; caused by head injuries, tumors, meningitis or encephalitis; treated with surgical procedure

99
Q

Dementia

A

evidence of significant cognitive decline in one or more domains (learning and memory, language, executive functioning, complex attention, perceptual-motor, social cognition); interfere with everyday activities

100
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

most common form of dementia; more prevalent in women; definitive diagnosis only from biopsy or autopsy; progressive course; cortical dementia, with memory, language, and praxis most affected; evidence for genetic component; Senile plaques (protein globes) and neurofibrillary tangles (pairs of tangled neuronal filaments) are found throughout the cortex and other brain structures, especially the hippocampus (associated with memory) and amygdala; decrease in acetylcholine (ACh), which is involved in learning and memory

101
Q

Vascular dementia

A

more common in men; results from numerous small CVAs (cerebrovascular accidents) or strokes; abrupt onset, rapid course, step-wise; death often withn years of onset; lifestyle changes effective in arresting progress; aspirin, anticoagulants, and antihypertensives to reduce future strokes

102
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

movement disorder marked by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and shuffling gait; slightly more men; neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as psychosis, dementia, and depression

103
Q

Parkinson’s dementia

A

dementia associated with Parkinson’s; sub-cortical dementia, affecting speed of processing and executive functions (planning, organizing, sequencing); associated with degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, a section of the basal ganglia; decrease in dopamine; L-Dopa treats movement components but does not alter progression; depression in 50-90%; antidepressants may improve emotional and cognitive functioning

104
Q

Bradykinesia

A

slowed initiation of movement

105
Q

Huntington’s disease (chorea)

A

results from an autosomaldominant gene; involves basal ganglia; acetylcholine and GABA implicated; not apparent until age 35-45; personality change often first sign; progressively deteriorating dementia; choreiform movements, athetosis, and facial grimaces begin months to years after onset of disease

106
Q

Choreiform movements

A

frequent, discrete, brisk jerking movements of the pelvis, trunk, and limbs

107
Q

Athetosis

A

slow writhing movements

108
Q

Pick’s disease

A

rare dementia; clinically indistinguishable from Alzheimer’s; twice as many women as men; onset peaking 50s and 60s; affects predominantly the frontal and temporal lobes; decreases in initiative, episodes of tactless and inappropriate behavior, facetiousness and euphoria, explosive temper, disinhibition and poor impulse control, and impaired insight; Problems with memory and language are also common, however, apraxias and agnosias are less common than in Alzheimer’s; neurons swell and have “ Pick bodies” (i.e., irregularly shaped inclusions); treatment has not been much studied

109
Q

AIDS dementia complex

A

dementia caused by HIV; approximately 10-15% of people with AIDS; cognitive (memory but not long term memory, attention/concentration, language), motor (weakness, lack of coordination, unsteady gait, and jerky eye movements), and behavioral changes (apathy, withdrawal, lack of motivation, personality changes, inappropriate affect, mood swings, and even hallucinations)

110
Q

closed head injuries

A

head injuries in which the skull is not pierced or cracked; most common are concussions and contusions; often result in loss of consciousness; impairments discrete and/or general

111
Q

concussion

A

blow to the head, hard enough to cause temporary neural dysfunction, but not hard enough to cause a cerebral contusion (bruising); most common head injury; may cause short-term loss of consciousness, anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia (typically events just before injury or event itself)

112
Q

postconcussion syndrome

A

somatic and psychological symptoms including headache, dizziness, fatigue, diminished concentration, memory deficit, irritability, anxiety, insomnia, hypochondriacal concern, hypersensitivity to noise, and photophobia; most common irritability, headaches, fatigue, dizziness

113
Q

contussions

A

severe blow to the head where there are coup-countrecoup injuries; may lose consciousness for minutes to an hour, and if conscious may be drowsy, confused, agitated , and even violent; returning to alert state, may experience temporary aphasia, slight hemiparesis, or unilateral numbness

114
Q

coup-contrecoup injuries

A

bruising beneath the point of impact as well as on the opposite side of the brain

115
Q

discrete impairment (head injury)

A

results from injury at the site of the coup or countrecoup, most frequently the frontal and temporal lobes; often frontal lobe syndromes with significant impacts on personality and social adjustment

116
Q

diffuse impairment
(head injury)

A

loss of complex cognitive functions (e.g., reductions in mental speed, ability to concentrate, and overall cognitive efficiency)

117
Q

open head injuries

A

involve penetration of skull; many do not lose consciousness; neurological signs often highly specific

118
Q

recovery from head trauma

A

bulk happens in first 6-9 months, can continue for 2-3 years; recovery of memory typically slower than general intelligence

119
Q

pseudodementia

A

cognitive impairment due to depression (slower processing speed, difficulties in concentration and attention, psychomotor retardation, social withdrawal, and easily giving up on difficult items when tested); acute onset, association with personal loss or emotional distress, and rapid progression; more likely to complain of memory loss; treatment for depression often improves

120
Q

delirium

A

acute confusional state; results from disturbances in consciousness; reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention; change in cognition (memory deficit, disorientation) or development of a perceptual disturbance; acute onset and fluctuating course; most likely to be reversible; often additional neurological signs and disturbed sleep; common causes are infections, metabolic and endocrine disorders, postoperative states, substance intoxication (medications or illicit drugs), and substance withdrawal

121
Q

neurotransmitter involved in delirium

A

acetylcholine thought to be involved

122
Q

drug of choice for delirium

A

ativan, sometimes antipsychotics

123
Q

amnestic disorders

A

disturbance in memory related to effects of general medical condition or persisting effects of substance; most common are head trauma and alcohol abuse; problems with memory only

124
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

thought to be caused by the chronic thiamin (Vitamin B1) deficiency associated with alcoholism; anterograde amnesia, especially learning new paired associates lists; also suffer retrograde amnesia; confabulate; lack of insight, limited spontaneous conversation; normal IQ, alert, attentive, generally motivated

125
Q

confabulate

A

make up plausible stories about past events that did not occur

126
Q

effects of ECT

A

can result in memory loss; bilateral frequently induces memory changes; cumulative effects; most effects reversible; more complaints of retrograde amnesia; unilateral ECT on the left side preferentially disturbs verbal memory, while unilateral right sided ECT preferentially disturbs nonverbal memory

127
Q

Melzak & Walls

A

Gate control theory of pain (1965)

128
Q

gate-control theory

A

sensations of pain not directly related to activation of pain receptors but mediated by neural gates in the spinal cord that allow signals to continue to brain; pressure stimulation tends to close gate; psychological factors such as attitudes and moods can also impact

129
Q

best management of chronic pain drugs

A

time-contingent (fixed interval) schedule (rather than based on pain)

130
Q

beta waves

A

predominate when person is awake and attentive

131
Q

alpha waves

A

predominate when a person closes eyes or relaxes; 8 to 12 Hz

132
Q

theta waves

A

predominate during first stage when falling asleep; 4 to 8 Hz

133
Q

delta waves

A

slow waves of 1 to 2 Hz; predominate during third and fourth stage

134
Q

Spindles

A

rhythmical responses of 12 to 16 Hz

135
Q

Stage 1 (sleep)

A

non-REM; little alpha, predominance of theta waves; brief transitional stage between awake and asleep

136
Q

Stage 2 (sleep)

A

non-REM; characterized by spindles; greatest amount of time while asleep

137
Q

Stage 3 & 4 (sleep)

A

non-REM; characterized by delta waves; hard to awaken; more prominent in first half of night

138
Q

REM sleep

A

patterns of stage 1 with rapid eye movements (little alpha, predominance of theta); newborns spend a lot of time here; more prominent in second half of night

139
Q

Generalized seizures

A

occur when electrical abnormalities exist throughout the brain; include tonic clonic seizures and petit mal seizures

140
Q

Tonic clonic seizures

A

tonic stage (continous tensions or contraction) followed by clonic stage (rapid, involuntary, alternating muscular contractions, and relaxation); occur during grand-mal seizures

141
Q

Grand mal seizures

A

dramatic and involve convulsions throughout the body; generalized seizure; loss of consciousness common; after, typically experience headache, confusion, fatigue, and amnesia for the seizure

142
Q

Petit mal seizures

A

also called absence seizures; most common in children before age 5; last 1-30 seconds; brief change in level of consciousness, followed by blinking or rolling of the eyes, a blank stare, and slight mouth movements, such as twitching

143
Q

Simple partial seizure

A

electrical abnormalities in focal area of brain only; usually remains conscious and can describe it in detail

144
Q

Jacksonian seizures

A

partial seizure; initially localized motor seizure, with a spread of abnormal activity to adjacent brain areas

145
Q

Complex partial seizure

A

typically preceded by an aura, and usually include purposeless behavior (e.g., aimless wandering), lip smacking, and unintelligible speech; consciousness impaired; confusion may last for several more minutes; ultimately makes full recovery

146
Q

Tests of brain function

A

PET scan; MRI; CAT scan

147
Q

PET scan

A

positron emission tomography; demonstrating brain activity or functioning; shows functional capacity of particular brain region

148
Q

MRI

A

magnetic resonance imaging; visualization of brain structures; utilizes radio waves rather than x-rays

149
Q

CAT scan

A

computerized axial tomography; viewing brain structure; results in x-ray like pictures that are more clear and accurate

150
Q

Synesthesia

A

one type of sensory stimulation elicits another sense; two or more senses connected (e.g., smelling colors)

151
Q

Hans Seyle

A

developed General Adaptation Syndrome

152
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

model of response to severe stress with three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion

153
Q

Alarm (General Adaptation Syndrome)

A

mobilizes resources; sympathetic nervous system activated; high alert, but lowered resistance to illness; symptoms include headache, fatigue, diarrhea

154
Q

Resistance (General Adaptation Syndrome)

A

alarm subsides, body adapts to stressor, level of resistance to illness above normal

155
Q

Exhaustion (General Adaptation Syndrome)

A

response to chronic, unremitting stress; resources exhausted, stress hormones depleted; loss of health and possibly death

156
Q

Rosenstock

A

health belief model

EPPP (8 decks)

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