IGCSE Theme 1 Population and Settlement Case Studies Flashcards
What was the One Child Policy?
Why was it introduced?
What did it do?
Aim: Why was it introduced?
To address China’s social and environmental challenges at the time including avoiding famine and starvations – population had increased from 550 million in 1950 to just under 1 billion in 1979.
The One-Child Policy Enforcement:
Abortions and Forced Abortions: In 2013, the Chinese government revealed that 336 million abortions were performed since the One-Child policy began.
Financial: The policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the “social child-raising fee,” which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of farmers, in the year of the child’s birth. China’s government collected two trillion yuan (£206bn) in fines since 1980.
Contraception and Sterilisation: In 2013, the Chinese government revealed that 196 million sterilisations had been performed since the One -Child Policy began. 325 million intrauterine devices (IUDs) had also been inserted in women in that time, often forcefully. Cash payments acted as incentives and helped increase the number of voluntary sterilisations.
Revisions to the policy:
In 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of “practical difficulties”. This applied to scenarios such as both parents being single children or if the first child was born with a disability.
By the mid-1980s rural parents were allowed to have a second child if the first was a daughter. It also allowed exceptions for some other groups, including ethnic minorities.
By 2007, only 36% of the population were subjected to a strict one-child limit.
The End of the One-Child Policy:
Two-Child Policy (2016-2021): In late 2015 Chinese officials announced that the One-Child Policy was ending. From January 2016, all families would be allowed to have two children. However, this change did not lead to a sustained increase in birth rates. The fertility rate continued to fall from 1.77 births per woman in 2016 to 1.28 births per woman in 2020.
Three-Child Policy (2021-): The two-child policy had little effect. With data from the 2020 census highlighting the looming demographic and economic crisis fuelled by low birth rates, an ageing population, and a shrinking workforce, in May 2021 the Chinese government announced that all married couples would be allowed to have as many as three children; this was formally passed into law in August 2021. The government has also said that it would be enacting supportive policy changes in areas such as employment, finance, childcare, and education to address the social and economic reasons why couples had thus far hesitated to have more children.
China’s population has fallen for the first time in 60 years in 2022, with the national birth rate hitting a record low - 6.77/1000. The population in 2022 fallen by 850,000 from 2021 levels.
What was the impact of the One Child Policy? What were the pros and cons?
Outcomes:
Controlled Population Growth: The Chinese government estimated that 400 million births were prevented by the policy. There has never been a famine since.
Increased per capita income and Poverty Reduction: In 2020, China’s per capita GDP was $10,520, up from $312 in 1978.
Improved Status of Women: Due to families being restricted to one child, it changed the traditional role of girls and women in Chinese society.
Labour force: The policy has reduced the size of China’s labour force, which could have negative effects on the country’s economic growth. In 2020, China’s working-age population (aged 15-64) was 891 million, down from a peak of 940 million in 2011.
Ageing population: By 2050, it is estimated a quarter of China’s population will be over the age of 65. This has put a strain on China’s social security system and healthcare system.
4:2:1 Families: A “4:2:1” home is the description given to households in which there are four grandparents, cared for by two working-age parents, who themselves have one child. This is said to place a large burden on the parents, particularly the mother, in a society where families tend to look after their elderly relatives and social services are far from comprehensive.
Gender imbalance: The One Child Policy led to a significant gender imbalance in China, as many families preferred to have male children. In 2020, there were 105.2 males for every 100 females in China.
Explain the causes of over-population in Bangladesh
Bangladesh has the eight large population in the world – 165 million – but only ranks 94th in the world in terms of land area. Its over-population has created many challenges for the nation.
Causes of Over-population:
Over-population in Bangladesh is largely caused by historical trends in the fertility rate. The fertility rate has dropped significantly in recent years, though the population is still large due to a rapidly increasing life expectancy.
Increased life expectancy: Life expectancy at birth of Bangladesh increased from 46 years in 1970 to 73 years in 2020. A much larger population is a consequence of this growth. It’s population has over doubled in this 50 year period. This was due to improvements in public health and economic growth.
Fertility rate: Bangladesh’s high fertility rate in the 1970s through to 1990s also contributed to the population explosion. Although the fertility rate has reduced dramatically recently, a high of 6.95 in 1970 contributed to the population size seen today.
Low uptake of contraception: The rate of contraceptive use was only 8% in 1975 (though this has risen to around 60% today). This contributed to the high fertility rate seen above.
Agricultural economics: Bangladesh is an agricultural country – 45% of its population work in agriculture. Agricultural families are often large as the family are expected to help in agricultural activities.
Explain the consequences of overpopulation in Bangladesh
Resource Scarcity: Bangladesh is one of the top ten most densely populated countries in the world with 1265 people per km2. This puts great strain on essential resources such as safe drinking water, food and energy. 60% of the population has to endure unsafe drinking water. Energy demand is also outstripping supply in Bangladesh – a country with few natural energy resources. Bangladesh is expected to double its fossil fuel imports by 2030.
Poverty: Nearly one-third of the 160 million population is living below the national poverty line. Although the unemployment rate is only around 5%, much of this employment is insecure and low paid. With a high population, it is challenging for workers to demand higher wages.
Poor education: Due to the high population, it has been challenging for the Bangladeshi government to provide high quality education for all. Only 64% of children go on to complete secondary education and the literacy rate is only 75%.
Deforestation: The primary cause of deforestation in Bangladesh has been population increase as this increases demand for forest products and fuel wood as well as space for housing and infrastructure. It has experienced an 11% decrease in tree cover since 2000 leading to biodiversity loses.
Housing: An estimated 47% of Bangladesh’s urban population live in squatter settlements. Demand for housing has outstripped supply. Many such areas do not have access to reliable and safe water supplies, electricity or sanitation.
Explain the causes of under-population in Australia
With a population of just under 23 million and a labour force of only 12.6 million, Australia, the sixth largest country in the world, is under-populated. It is very rich in resources, with large resources of iron ore, coal, gold, copper, natural gas and uranium – and abundant potential for solar and wind power development.
With all of these different factors combined, Australia could support a large population.
Climate: The total desert area equates to 18% of the total mainland area of Australia. However, a much larger area receives very little water. Living in these areas is very challenging due to the high temperatures and lack of precipitation.
Fertility rate: Australia’s fertility rate is very low and is below replacement level – 1.66 births per woman (the average number of children born per woman—at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next, without migration).
Soil Fertility: Australia’s soils are among the most nutrient poor and unproductive in the world. Very little of Australian soils are suited to agriculture, with most being shallow, high in salt and low in nutrients. This makes the growth of population across the country difficult.
Explain the consequences of under-population in Australia
High levels of immigration: Australia’s positive net migration rate of over 5.6 per 1000 is one of the highest in the world. As an under-populated country, this helps them to provide vital services and produce economic growth that may not be possible otherwise. However, this has not always been well received by all of its population. A report in 2019 found that 85% of Australians polled felt that multiculturalism had made a positive impact on Australia, but 40% admitted negative or very negative feelings towards Muslims. Tensions have thus been produced in communities.
Shortage of workers: Due to Australia’s under-population there are a shortage of workers in vital industries. For example, it is predicted that Australia’s demand for nurses will significantly exceed supply in the near future, with a projected shortfall of 85,000 nurses by 2025 or 123,000 by 2030. Over 22,000 more workers are still needed to fill labour shortages across the agriculture industry also. Farmers may lose crops and food prices could hike as a result.
High standard of living: The quantities of many of Australia’s resources are greater than the country’s needs, so any surpluses can be exported. Australia’s exports were worth US$184 billion in 2016. Its GDP per person is high at around US$50,000 and the unemployment rate is low (3.5%). Education standards in Australia are high. 99% of Australians are literate, and education is available for 20 years of a person’s life. Healthcare is also good: e.g. the infant mortality rate is only 0.46%.
Regional Inequality: Unemployment tends to be well above the national average in remote regions. For example, areas of Far North Queensland – including Palm Island – have extremely high unemployment rates: more than 40 per cent, compared to the national average of 3.5%.
Explain the causes of Niger’s high rate of natural population growth
Niger’s population growth rate stands at 3.8% in 2020 – one of the highest in the world. At current rates it population of 24 million may nearly triple by 2050. Its fertility rate is the highest in the world with 6.8 births per woman. This, combined with a death rate that has over halved since 2000 (from 17 deaths per 1000 to 8 per 1000 in 2020), has produced rapid population growth.
Religious beliefs: More than 80% of the population are Muslim. Procreation is encouraged in Islam. Many men do not use contraception, believing that the more children a man has, the greater his prestige in society.
Low Uptake of Contraception: There is little use of contraception, especially in rural areas where there are few family planning clinics. Contraceptive use was reported at 11% in 2018. With such low use, numbers of pregnancy are high.
Agricultural families: Niger’s agriculture sector employs nearly 85 percent of the population. Most is based on smallholder, subsistence farming systems. Children are required for labour on the farms.
Early Marriage: Early marriage is common – 60% of marriages involve children under 16. This also means that childbearing during adolescence is frequent: about half of women have at least one birth before age 20.
Improved Clean Water Access: There was a 7% increase in the population’s access to clean drinking water between 2012-2015. Waterborne diseases such as cholera as significant killers in LICs. Improved water access reduces this risk.
Explain the consequences of Niger’s high rate of natural population growth
There are too few teachers to provide adequate education. The literacy rate is only 35%.
Healthcare is inadequate, with only two doctors per 100,000 people.
45% live below the poverty line and the economy is the second poorest in the world.
Farms become much smaller because they are split between many children when the father dies, so food production does not keep pace with population growth. 38% of children under five are underweight. Agricultural land is over-cultivated, causing soil exhaustion and erosion.
Only 13% of the population has access to basic sanitation services. Open defecation is practiced by more than 71% of the population with serious consequences on health, nutrition, education or economic development.
Deforestation is a major problem. Niger has had a 55% decrease in tree cover since 2000. Forest is cleared to make way for new settlements and for fuel.
Explain the causes of Japan’s population decline
Japan’s population growth rate was negative in 2020 at -0.3%. Japan’s population has declined year-on-year since 2010. Its fertility rate is well below replacement level at only 1.36 births per woman and its death rate is increasing.
Cost of Living: The cost of living in Japan is high. People have to consider whether or not they can afford to bring up a child and many choose not to. Tokyo annually makes it into the lists of the world’s top ten most expensive cities.
Demographics – an Ageing Population: Japan has the world’s highest life expectancy, however, it’s death rate is increasing. It has increased from 8 per 1000 people in 2004 to 11 per 1000 people in 2020. This is due to the population having an increasing proportion in the older age groups in which deaths occur most frequently.
Demographics – an Ageing Population: Over one-quarter of Japan’s population is 65 years old or older. The number of people of childbearing age as a proportion of Japan’s population is declining.
Age of Childbirth: Women are having children later, contributing to the falling birth rate. In 2019, the average age that a Japanese woman had her first child was 31, compared to 26 in 1970. Having children later in life often results in women having fewer children.
Women Entering the Workforce: In 2019, women represented 44.4% of the entire Japanese labour force. Many people in Japan choose to focus on their careers, delaying children until later in life or not having children at all.
Explain the consequences of Japan’s population decline
Schools in Japan, from elementary to secondary school level, are being closed at a rate of 400–500 schools per year.
29% of the population are 65 or older. This high dependency ratio means that there are fewer young people to support the ageing population. This will lead to younger people paying higher taxes to support the elderly population.
Japan’s declining population will result in a shortage of workers in the future. This will lead to reduced economic growth and the closure of some services. In 2019, the labour shortage was estimated to be 600,000 workers, and the figure could climb to 1.3 million by 2024.
Japan’s health expenditure reached 11 % of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018 and is projected to reach 12% by 2030. Elderly people require more health- and social-care than younger populations.
Since, 1985 Japan’s farming population has shrunk by around 60% while the average age of farmers has steadily increased. 64% of farmers are 65 or over. The increasing age of farmers and subsequent decrease in labour input is considered a key factor in the growing number of abandoned agricultural fields around the country, raising concerns about farming areas going to ruin.
Outline the size of Mexico-USA migration
An estimated 870,000 Mexican migrants emigrated to the USA between 2013 and 2018, while an estimated 710,000 left the USA for Mexico during that period. That translates to net migration of about 160,000 people from Mexico to the USA.
Mexican immigrants have been at the centre of one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. Between 1965 and 2015, more than 16 million Mexican immigrants migrated to the USA.
Explain the push factors of migration from Mexico to the USA
Inequality: Mexico is among the world’s 30 countries with the highest levels of inequality. The minimum salary does not cover basic needs and is below the poverty line, where almost half the population finds itself.
Covid-19 Impacts on Mexico’s Economy: A main driver of migration has become the pandemic, which has exacerbated chronic inequality and increased poverty and violence. Migration from Mexico declined between 2009 and 2019, with more Mexicans leaving the United States than arriving. The drop was attributed to a growing Mexican economy and smaller family sizes. When the pandemic struck in 2020, Mexico’s economy was hit hard. The pandemic pushed 3.8 million people into poverty.
High Crime Rates: Mexican law enforcement has struggled to curb crime-related violence. In 2018, the number of drug-related homicides in Mexico rose to 33,000. Mexican cartels killed at least 130 candidates and politicians in the lead-up to Mexico’s 2018 presidential elections. The issue of safety and crimes is a factor in migration to the USA.
Explain the pull factors of migration from Mexico to the USA
Higher Wages: Mexicans emigrate to the United States to improve their economic situation. Mexicans working in the United States earn six times more than at home. The average monthly salary for a Mexican worker employed in the United States at the end of 2016 was $1,870. In comparison, the average wage in Mexico was six times lower, at $291 a month.
Visas for Temporary Work in Agriculture: Working in agriculture is made easy by the availability of temporary work visas in agriculture. The visa for farmworkers is called the H-2A visa. In 2021, 300,000 Mexicans were granted these temporary work visas.
Family and Friends in USA: Mexican Americans comprise around 11% of the USA’s population. An important motivation of migration to the USA from Mexico is kinship relations in the destination.
Positive and negative impacts of migration from Mexico to the USA on the USA
Positive Impacts on the USA:
Economic Contributions: Mexican immigrants contribute 4% of total USA GDP. Including second and third generation Mexicans, their contribution rises to 8 percent.
Gaps in the Labour Market: Mexican migrants help to fill gaps in the American labour market. This includes many jobs US citizens are reluctant to do. For example, 300,000 Mexicans were working seasonal farm jobs in 2021.
Cultural Contributions: Mexicans have contributed greatly to America’s culture and diversity whether it be language, food, music or festivities. For example, it has had a huge impact on cuisine - tacos, have gained preference over hot dogs and tortillas sell more than hamburger buns. Spanish is also the second most spoken language in the USA.
Negative Impacts on the USA:
Political tension: Immigration has been one of the most significant topics in US politics in recent years. Migration has spurred political tension in the country. Former President Donald Trump referred to immigrants as “an invasion” and completed hundreds of miles of a wall along the southern border.
Economic Leakage: Money sent back to Mexico as remittances is money that is lost from the American Economy. This is expected to total $60bn in 2022.
Wage Stagnation: The impacts of immigration on wages is disputed by economists. Immigration can lead to a rise in the average wage of all workers, but to a fall in the wages of some low-paid workers. It is true that wages for low-wage workers have declined — they fell 5% from 1979 to 2013.
Positive and negative impacts of migration from Mexico to the USA on Mexico
Positive Impacts on Mexico:
Remittances: In 2022, remittances are expected to reach $60 billion. Remittances from the migrants help to support their families back in Mexico and improve their standard of living. Remittances are crucial for the country, as they represent 4% of GDP.
Less Demand on Natural Resources: Emigration creates less demand on natural resources such as food and water. More than half of Mexico suffered from drought in 2022.
Negative Impacts on Mexico:
Brain Drain: Approximately 21,000 Mexicans with PhDs live in the US (15% of all those with doctorates in Mexico). Many highly educated Mexicans depart to opportunities in the USA and take with them their expertise and training.
Rural Depopulation: The Mexican countryside has a shortage of economically active people. Young people tend to migrate, leaving the old and the very young. Certain villages such as Santa Ines have lost two thirds of their inhabitants.
