AL - L6 Settlement Dynamics Theory Flashcards
to help consolidate settlement theory relating to CAIE's AL Geography specification. This deck does not contain case study specifics - you must learn these on your own!
What are the 4 stages of the cycle of urbanisation?
- Rapid urbanisation
- Suburbanisation
- Counter-urbanisation
- Re-urbanisation
Briefly describe the cycle of urbanisation
Why is the % of the population living in urban areas higher in HICs than LICs?
HICs are at a later stage of the cycle of urbanisation (associated with industrialisation e.g., from the 18th Century in Britain)
The majority of the population therefore are already living in urban areas
LICs are at an earlier stage of the cycle, with industrialisation starting much more recently
More recent industrialisation is driving rural-urban migration - leading to rapid urbanisation
Whilst the % of people living in urban areas is increasing in LICs, it is yet to reach the majority as in HICs.
Define the term: urbanisation
the process whereby an increasing proportion of the population in a geographical area lives in urban settlements.
Define the term: urban growth
the absolute increase in the number of people and the area/areal extent of an urban area.
More developed countries are experiencing growth in a different way to less developed countries. Why?
MDCs are further ahead economically - so if anything, may be experiencing counter-urbanisation and/or re-urbanisation (particularly among the younger economically active)
LDCs are earlier on in the cycle, so are very much at the rapid-urbanisation stage
What problems might be caused for a country by the rapid growth of its largest cities?
- Increased land prices
- Provision of housing
- Neglect of other areas, uneven development
- Congestion, pollution, and other environmental degradation.
- Further growth as services, jobs and other opportunities are concentrated, leading to diseconomies of scale (an economic disadvantage)
- Concentration of political power
- Pressure on infrastructure and utilities
In which part of the world is most urban growth occuring?
Asia and Africa
What has led to the growth of suburban areas?
The willingness of local authorities to provide piped water, sewerage systems, gas and electricity
Low interest rates – easy to access mortgages and borrow money
The expansion of building societies – originally localised and focused on housing. Easier to get a mortgage…
Improvements to road networks
Development of public transport routes
Government support for house building
In many developed cities, lots of people are moving out of cities. This is a result of what?
Urban ‘deconcentration’: this may be as a result of government policies to move certain functions out of cities
Some cities in HICs are reversing the trend of people moving outwards. Why?
This is often age related with the younger, economically active seeking opportunities in cities, thus driving re-urbanisation
This may be a result of:
Government investment to rejuvenate areas e.g., London’s Docklands
New renewal projects creating new centres for home, leisure and work e.g., Nine Elms
Net immigration, with migrants typically drawn to cities because of the prospect of work
What are the two drivers of urbansiation?
Natural increase (high crude birth rates in LICs because rural-urban migration is age selective and these age groups are typically more fertile)
Rural-urban migration - increases the proportion of people in urban areas
Urbanisation is a function of two things: natural increase and rural-urban migration
Why are people moving to urban areas?
A result of push and pull factors (linked to Lee’s Push and Pull model depicted below)
Rural – Urban migration: push factors
Rural population puts pressure on the land – causes over-farming, low yields and soil erosion
Inheritance laws can mean that land is divided until each plot is very small and cannot produce enough food
Floods, droughts and desertification add to the problems subsistence farmers face – those who try to improve their circumstances can get into debt…
Poor family planning schemes – higher BR and an inaccessibility to access medical facilities…
Rural – Urban migration: pull factors
Jobs, or the perception of jobs, in factories and service industry (hotels, call centres etc.) which are better paid than rural jobs
Opportunity to earn money in the informal sector
Even begging and crime can be more lucrative in the city than working on a farm in the countryside
Better social provision (education, healthcare etc…)
Overall perception that life is better in the city, as portrayed in the media
Rural settlements are typically characterised by more elderly people
What might the impacts of counter-urbanisation be in HIC cities be?
The urban environment can deteriorate
CBDs are ‘ghost towns’ at night
People who tend to move out are from the higher income groups
Areas can fall into decline as the housing stock is less well looked after or empty for long periods of time
Schools may close as people move out of city centres and inner city areas to raise children
Reduced congestion…
Pressure on housing decreases affording younger migrants an opportunity to live in the city centre.
Define the term: counterurbanisation
The outflow of people (and activities) to more rural areas away from urban areas.
Why are some cities experiencing population decline?
- Environmental issues such as pollution
- Employment loss/economic decline
- Crime
- High cost of land
- Development of/attraction of other cities, smaller towns/rural areas
- Improvements in transport and personal mobility
- Impact of internet on location of workplaces
- Natural decrease
Define the term: urban renewal
The replacement of old structures/buildings with new ones and the conversion of space/land from one use to another in towns and cities.
Why does urban renewal occur in central areas of towns and cities?
- deterioration of buildings/no longer fit for purpose
- poor living conditions for residential population
- inefficient use of prime central land (e.g. low rise)
- potential profitability of redevelopment
- associated traffic problems and congestion
- response to hazardous events, e.g. bomb, fire, earthquake
- re-imaging of an area
Why does urban renewal occur?
Private initiatives to develop run-down areas for profit
Government initiatives (sometimes in conjunction with private finance)
Environmental improvements
Infrastructural improvements
Attempts are reimaging
Give the meaning of the term: world city
A city that has a major role in global/world affairs, being a centre of economic power and a centre of political/cultural influence.
How can a large city become classified as a world city?
- International significance in political, economic and/or cultural events e.g., hosting meetings of the G7 or G20 or large sporting events e.g., The Olympic Games
- Significant nodal points in global economic system - lots of money transferred through the city e.g., London’s ‘square mile’
- Centres of international transport and internet connectivity - e.g., connection hubs such as Heathrow Airport
- Location of headquarters of global companies (TNCs) e.g., Google, KPMG, or Microsoft, which have international links…
Name the two Alpha++ world cities
London and New York
Why might the hierarchy of world cities change?
In LICs:
rural-urban migration and high rates of natural population increase in urban areas produce large urban growth and a large potential workforce and market – cities
such as Johannesburg and Lagos in Africa may move up the hierarchy as a result and more cities may enter the hierarchy
In NICs:
cities such as Shanghai and Singapore come to rival those already at the top with greater levels of connections and competitiveness on economic markets
In HICs:
deindustrialisation and economic recessions may reduce the power of global cities and they may drop down the hierarchy e.g., Brexit changing the financial market landscape for businesses operating in London - this fundamentally reduced the number of connections with businesses relocating offices to Paris…
The figure shows the distribution of megacities predicted for 2030. Describe the distribution of new megacities shown.
- Majority in LIC/MIC countries (8/10?)
*Concentration in Asia, particularly Eastern
*None in three continents: North America, South America and Australasia/Oceania
*2 in Africa (Angola and Tanzania) / 1 in Europe (UK)
*Majority are north of the Equator (8 north and only 2 south of Equator)
*All eastern hemisphere
*Half (5) within the tropics
- Half on the coast
Outline the benefits of megacities for the provision of services (aka - how do services benefit from being in megacities?).
Services have a large potential market
Services can benefit from economies of scale
There are cost benefits for services focusing their resources in one area
There are profitability gains with large markets
There is a labour supply to help fill job vacancies within certain services
Services benefit from being local to transport and communication hubs
What are the positive consequences of rapid urban growth in LICs?
development of secondary and tertiary industries concentrated in large cities – demand for labour met by rapid influx of population from rural areas
large pool of cheap, available labour an attraction to more industries including TNCs
multiplier effect, which may attract new services and land uses to an area
cities increase in status and power as a result of economic growth and natural increase > may result in world city status
improved access to education and health care in urban areas
out-migration from rural areas relieves pressure in rural areas – mechanisation of agriculture has reduced need for labour and resulted in less pressure on food supplies and services in rural areas
What are the negative consequences of rapid urban growth in LICs?
unemployment in the urban area as there are too many workers and not enough jobs. May also drive unemployment in rural areas as a result of outmigration
Unplanned growth will result in the loss of agricultural land and unsafe construction
Demand for housing outstrips supply and may lead to problems associated with informal, unplanned settlement development
inadequate infrastructure – traffic congestion, sanitation issues etc.
power supplies may not be extended quickly enough
growth in crime and social problems resulting from higher rates of unemployment
out-migration from rural areas can break up families, cause a loss of working age groups and produce an ageing population in rural areas
agricultural decline and service decline can occur in rural areas.
Why is there a slow rate of growth in HICs?
Cities in HICs grew many years ago due to rural-urban migration so that the majority are now city dwellers.
Added to this is the fall in birth and death rates and consequent natural increase.
This migration has now all but ceased and death rates too have fallen.
Delayed starting of families, smaller family units with little or no increase in housing stock, green belts (or similar planning restrictions), counter-urbanisation all contribute.
In many HICs there is actually a decline in population rather than an increase which can be explained by counter-urbanisation and industrial decline,
Explain the location of low-income households in cities in LICs and HICs.
LICs: - outskirts. Why? Land value is high in city centres, so low-income households are unable to compete. Land is at a premium but further out, it is often unclaimed or unclear who owns it, so informal settlements appear and propagate
HICs: - inner city. Why? Historically, for the provision of workers. People then suburbanised and the quality of the inner city environment declined, leading to a decrease in land value. Property is often smaller and in areas characterised by higher crime and lower quality environmental metrics, so less appealing to higher-income households
There are exceptions - government policy, redevelopment projects, help-to-buy schemes etc. are changing the landscape. ‘Slum clearance’ goals under the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals also plays a role
Describe the Burgess Model of settlement structure (concentric rings).
Centre - Outward
CBD
Inner City / Zone of Transition / Twilight Zone
Low quality residential
Medium quality residential
High quality residential
Outline the assumptions the Burgess Model is based on.
There must be a uniform land space with no differences in physical geography
There should be free competition for space
There should be free access to transport in all directions
Assumes a city grow outwards from a central core
Assumes continuing in-migration to the city
Describe the land use structure depicted on the Hoyt (sector) model.
Business district is in the middle – reason: maximum accessibility
Notices that once variations arose in land use near to the centre, they tend to persist as the city expands
High-income housing usually developed where there were distinct physical or social attractions
Low-income housing is confined to the most unfavourable locations
Major transport routes play a role in determining sectoral growth, particularly in relation to industry
Medium and high-class housing near the centre, the oldest housing in both cases, was subject to suburban relocation by its residents, leading to deterioration, subdivision and occupation by low-income groups.
Describe the land use structure depicted on the Multiple Nuclei (Harris and UIlman) model.
C.D. Harris and E. Ullman (1945) argued that the pattern of land use does not develop around a single centre but around a number of discrete nuclei.
Some nuclei may be longer established than others (old villages may be incorporated into the city by urban expansion.
Others (e.g. industrial estates for light manufacturing) are newer. Similar activities group together, benefitting from agglomeration, whilst some land uses repel others.
Middle and high-income house buyers can afford to avoid residing close to industrial areas, which become the preserve of the poor.
A rapid rate of urban expansion may result in some activities being disperser to new nuclei such as an out-of-town shopping centre.
Describe the Bid Rent Model
What is the main relationship depicted by the Bid Rent model?
Suggested by Alonso in 1964
Depicts the relationship between land value and distance from the CBD
What is the key principle that underpins the Bid Rent model?
The prospective land use willing, and able, to bid the most will gain the most central location.
The land use able to bid the least will be relegated to the most peripheral location.
Explain why commerce is often willing and able to afford to locate in the city centre.
Commerce (particularly large department stores/chain stores) is willing to pay the greatest rent to be in the CBD.
The CBD is very valuable for them because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a large population.
This large population is essential for department stores, which require a considerable turnover and have large ranges and thresholds.
As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value. They maximise the potential of their site by building multi-storey buildings and building densely.
Explain why industry is is often willing and able to afford to locate between the CBD and residential land use.
Industry is willing to pay to be on the outskirts of the CBD.
There is more land available for their factories, but they still have many of the benefits of the CBD, such as a marketplace and good communications.
Factory workers lived in mainly terraced houses in the UK in a grid like pattern. These were originally built to house factory workers who worked in the inner-city factories. Many of these factories have now closed.
This zone is also known as the Twilight zone or the Zone of Transition, an urban zone of a city where industry and residential areas mix, and the population is often transitory and constantly moving.
Explain why residential land use is often willing and able to afford to locate furthest out from the CBD.
Further out of the city, land is less attractive to industry and the householder can purchase land.
The further you go from the CBD, the cheaper the land. Therefore, inner-city areas are very densely populated (terraces, flats and high rises), whilst the suburbs and rural areas are sparsely populated (semi and detached houses with gardens).
Better connections make it easier for people to travel into central areas for work/retail services.
Land is more readily available to the cost is typically lower further out from the city centre.
Different parts of a city serve different purposes (functions). What might affect the functions of an area depend on?
The age of area in question → buildings get older toward the city centre, except most CBDs and inner-city areas have been redeveloped and modernised
Land values: → increase rapidly from the city boundary as you move toward the CBD
Accessibility → some functions rely more heavily on transport connections than others
Give the meaning of the term: functional zonation
The exam board definition is:
Functional zonation is where different land-uses and activities (functions) are found concentrated together in certain parts of the urban area, with other functions not found, under-represented or excluded, e.g. a zone of manufacturing industry, or lawyers’ offices all near one another. [3]
Explain why functional zones occur.
They occur as a result of:
The attraction of like functions to increase custom – means that some areas grow in their specific function over time
The operation of bid-rent and spatial competition
Linkages – e.g. efficiency of doing business with each other
Planning decisions may promote the location of certain industries in certain areas = zonation
Accessibility may play a role
Social factors – ethnic enclaves…
Physical factors – industry may locate along a river for example
Outline the advantages of functional zonation.
Aids the consumer e.g., for comparison shopping (saves travel and lowers costs etc.)
Reduces pollution in certain areas by zoning like functions (e.g., less air pollution in residential areas)
Sharing of ideas/linkages between like functions or businesses
Time/cost saving for the function itself
Outline the disadvantages of functional zonation.
May concentrate pollution in certain areas
Can lead to congestion if poorly managed
Increased competition for businesses
Consumers may have to travel further for comparison goods
Describe what functional zonation is and explain why it occurs in urban areas.
Functional zonation is seen in urban areas where some functions cluster in certain parts of the town or city, often with a noticeable absence of other functions as a result. Zonation can also occur in a vertical sense.
Examples in CBDs in HICs are high class retail, shoe shops, solicitors, etc. Zones may also be industrial, transport, entertainment, etc.
Reasons could include:
attraction of like functions to increase custom
the operation of bid-rent and spatial competition
comparison behaviour, such as comparison shopping
linkages, e.g., efficiency of doing business with each other
planning decisions
accessibility
social factors e.g., ethnic enclaves
physical factors e.g., along rivers for transport
Why is land value and rent highest in the CBD?
(classically) the most accessible part of the city
central position,
focus of public transport systems
competition for space from functions that rely on / profit from large numbers of people as customers or workers
such functions willing to pay high prices for land or building space that is in short supply as potential high profits linked to accessibility
bid rent theory – “the prospective land use willing and able to bid the most will gain the most central location”.
How do high land values and rents help explain the characteristics of CBDs?
High prices lead to maximised use of land / little unused land so high building density and vertical and underground developments
Concentration of high quality dept. stores, chain stores and comparison goods shops that require high footfall, and high rents affordable
Concentration of banks and businesses that rely on large numbers of customers and / or workers so high rents justified
Absence of manufacturing industry and low residential population – these land uses are outbid
Outline the typical features of the CBD
- Old Core - often narrow streets / historical core (e.g., The Backs in Cambridge/The Lanes in Brighton)
- Very Accessible - due to the convergence of major rail and road routes (often find public transport meets here - e.g., railway stations / bus stations)
- Traffic Restrictions are often in place to deal with the large numbers of traffic and ensure safety for the high numbers of pedestrians.
- Often has a central Market square area
- Very High Land Values - due to lack of space and competition for land
- Little/ No Residential Land Use - due to high land-values there is usually no residential land-use apart from the possibility of some flats above shops
- Multi-storey buildings - due to high land values resulting in building up rather than out
- Shops Offices and specialist buildings e.g., Banks, buildings societies etc. (need to be accessible and can afford the high land values)
- Mainly National Chain stores (have high threshold population and can afford the high land-values associated with the CBD - e.g., M&S; WHS; Next etc)
- High numbers of pedestrians
- 2 daily rush hours (am and pm)
- Many now have undercover shopping centres
- Presence of public buildings / government buildings (e.g., Town Hall etc.)
- museums / castles / historical buildings (e.g., museums / University buildings)
- Entertainment - restaurants, clubs etc.
Identify the characteristics of the CBD
Intensive land use
Dense structure
Vertical use of space
Small residential population
Specialised functions/ clustering of certain functions e.g. retail, finance
Avoid: ‘busy’ or ‘lots of shops’ - terminology should be of a good geographical standard
Why might locating in a CBD be increasingly undesirable?
Increased car ownership = congestion
High land values
High competition for land
Restrictions on building - some buildings may be ‘listed’
Increasing accessibility out of town where land values are cheaper
Why might retail and other services move out of the CBD to locations near the edge of an urban area?
Disadvantages of CBD:
high costs, inconvenience, congestion,
poor access,
lack of room to expand,
lack of parking for customers,
crime, etc.
Advantages of CBD:
lower bid-rent,
savings on journey times,
route nodes and (edge) junctions give good access,
available space (expansion, car parking,
storage, etc.),
greener site,
relative quiet,
purpose-built retail park or estate, attracts custom from wider area
Describe the location in which retail (shops and supermarkets) is found in urban areas.
Command term is describe - not explain!
Retail found in settlements of all sizes in towns and cities in HICs and LICs.
Some larger settlements offer more scope.
Changes from the local ‘corner shop’ in a residential area to a suburban shopping centre in larger towns
Out of town shopping centres and retail parks or estates near main roads or junctions in peripheral areas.
What factors, other than bid-rent, cause zonation in urban areas?
Environmental/physical, e.g. relief, rivers, wind direction, etc.
Economic, e.g. transport routes, linkages, complementary, etc.
Social, e.g. life cycle, ethnic or cultural clustering, reputation, etc.
Political, e.g. planning controls, green belts, taxes/rates, etc.
Explain the issues for rural settlements that result from their decline.
Population structure e.g. dependency ratios increase in rural areas as elderly remain and economically active migrate away. Population decline (depopulation) in rural areas…
Settlement changes e.g. in size, state of buildings (development of more age related residential e.g., retirement housing / assisted living)
Economic e.g. type and range of economic activity (service decline, decline in transport provision, loss of youth services e.g., schools etc) / reduced funding from government
Social and cultural e.g. type and level of education
Why are populations of some rural areas increasing?
- Urban‒rural migration
- Counter urbanisation
- Resource exploitation
- Agricultural development
- Relocation schemes
- Natural increase
- More homeworking/internet
Describe the effects of spatial competition within the CBD.
– dominance of users able to pay high prices
– other users forced out
– maximising use of space by building up (and down)
– little unused land and loss of green cover
– replacement of older buildings
– highly active property market, advertising, etc.
Why is the provision of services changing in rural areas?
Services include retailing, education, tourism etc. Changing covers growth and/or decline (including a shift in the balance).
Demand is changing due to:
population change
rising standards/expectations
changes in wealth and inequality
Remote areas in HICs are losing services such as schools and post offices whilst more accessible areas are gaining services.
Remote areas in LICs may be gaining services (albeit from a low base) as development trickles down and outward from the main cities.
What might the consequences be for rural areas that result from urban growth?
Could take a HIC and/or LIC approach.
- loss of community and traditional social fabric
- population change
- outmigration of some of the original rural residents
- increase in pollution (air, water, land, noise)
- environmental degradation, e.g. removal of trees, loss of wildlife
- shift in values from rural/traditional to urban/modern
- conservation of landmarks and traditional buildings
- change in employment structure
- change in services and infrastructure
What are the challenges for providing transport infrastructure in cities?
- Cost – building/operating/using
- Need for land in a crowded area – conflict
- Opposition from locals
- Pollution, noise, etc., caused during building
- Issues of peak demand
- Private or public ownership
Explain why residential segregation occurs in urban areas in LICs.
Residential segregation refers to the physical separation of cultural groups based on residence and housing. People are residentially segregated across a number of dimensions, including socio-economic status, religion and race & ethnicity.
Racial: apartheid in South Africa and red lining in the USA
Economic: as the rich pull away from the rest of society, they either relocate to areas where other affluent families live, or they tend to bid up the price of local housing. Gated communities may form.
The spiralling costs of housing, in turn, displace families with lower incomes. Traditionally the wealthy are
located close to the CBD in LICs.
Ethnic/social: different racial and ethnic groups are segregated. Social and ethnic differences are closely related to each other in American cities, and the vast majority of the most underprivileged social and occupational groups come from among African Americans.
As the most underprivileged ethnic groups, besides their unfavourable social position, they are also afflicted by a whole series of ethnic prejudices and discrimination. Thus in North American cities low-status groups are segregated in similarly few, large, and spatially coherent areas
as the high-status groups.
What are the causes and processes of residential segregation within urban areas?
Causes could include:
* physical: space, relief, drainage, south facing, views
* economic: income/wealth, house types/prices, jobs, transport
* social preference of residents: priorities (travel/schools), racial or ethnic clustering, discrimination
* political: land use zoning, planning, social housing
* historical: old colonial pattern
* combinations of the above
Processes should examine those processes that lead to segregation so may overlap with causes.
Processes could include:
* core/periphery processes such as spread/backwash
* cycles of decline/growth
* social and political issues resulting in social or economic segregation
* housing policy: type, cost and ownership of housing
* gradual change in character of neighbourhoods (tipping)
* degeneration/regeneration of areas, gentrification
Why do different groups of people live in different residential areas within urban settlements?
Residential segregation:
*by income: ability to pay rent
*socially race and/or ethnicity
*Operation of the housing market
*A result of planning and policy decisions
*Cultural factors - ethnic enclaves within urban arres
Why do migrants live in distinct areas in urban areas in HICs?
*migrants cluster together to reduce feelings of isolation and preserve identity and cultural heritage
*provide a defence related to fear of conflict with surrounding groups
*migrants can more easily carry out activities that promote solidarity and safety
*limited financial resources may mean limited access and choice of housing
Describe the characteristic functions of CBDs.
- high order retail (shops and stores)
- businesses/commercial
- offices of professional services, e.g. accountants, lawyers
- banks and other financial services
- government
- public buildings, e.g. library, hall
- transport, e.g. railway station, car parks
- other, e.g. churches, green areas, monuments.
The figure shows the urban area of Chennai, India, an MIC in Asia, for 1991 and 2016. Using the figure, describe the changes in the urban area shown between 1991 and 2016.
Changes in the urban area may include:
- urban area has grown in extent
- growth has been inland and along the coast
- existing, smaller urban areas have grown
- urban areas have merged
- there are some newly urbanised areas, e.g. around the large water
body in the north west - other valid changes
The figure shows the growth of Palmas, a city in Brazil, an MIC in South
America, 1990–2013. Using the figure, describe the pattern of growth of Palmas from 1990 to 2013.
- most growth from 1990 to 2000 occurs to the north and south-east of
the CBD (1) - from 2000 to 2013 most of the growth occurs to the west and south-west (1)
- in both time periods there is infill/joining of existing areas together (1)
and extension of the urban area (1) - growth from 1990 to 2000 largely occurs in areas with main roads but
less so from 2000 to 2013 (1)
The figure shows the rural and urban population of the world, 1990–2017.
Using the figure, state the year in which urban population equals the
rural population.
2006 or 2007
Using the figure, compare the trends in rural population and urban
population from 1990 to 2017.
Both increase (1),
urban at a faster rate (1),
with both changing rate (slower for rural after 2001) (1).
MUST USE DATA
The table shows population data for part of an urban area of a city in
an HIC, 1990 and 2020. Using the table, state three changes in the urban population between 1990 and 2020.
Point mark – 1 mark per valid point. A simple statement of change is acceptable.
No credit for stating a difference, e.g. unemployment differs by 3.3%.
- Professionals increased (by 12.2%)
- Unemployment fell (by 3.3%)
- Average age increased (by 12 years)
- % not born in the country fell (by 23%)
- Average household size decreased (by 3.8)
Suggest reasons for the change in the urban population shown in
the table.
- An inner urban area undergoing gentrification – wealthy move in
- An urban area maturing as migrants settle and develop careers
- An area that has been redeveloped/upgraded by the government
- Increased tertiary education so more professionals
- Decrease in BR due to education/careers for females, so household size
decreases - An area where employment structure has changed, e.g. offices replacing
factories
The figure is a photograph which shows an urban area in a city in an HIC.
State three features which suggest that the area shown in the figure is a
wealthy area.
Features could include:
* Large houses – 5 storeys
* Balconies and shrubs
* Very grand entrance – far left
* Opposite park / wood
* Expensive cars outside
* Well kept (e.g. no litter, vandalism, decay)
Suggest two problems for people living in the area shown in the figure.
- Parking – no garages visible
- Small / no front gardens, so street noise
- Disturbance / pollution from traffic
- Terraced so noise from neighbours
- High cost of upkeep – clearly all done together (no choice of colours, etc.)
- High cost (rents, etc.)
The figure shows part of the same urban area of a city in an MIC in 1990
and 2015. Using the figure, state three changes in the urban area shown between 1990 and 2015.
- New airport in NW
- New industrial area and informal housing near the airport
- New dam on the river
- New resort on river
- New informal housing around industry in the SE
- More informal housing
- More high class housing
- New high class housing along the coast in SE and up the west of the river
- New inner high class housing near bridge to the island CBD
Table 3.1 shows the world’s largest ten cities, by population, in 2018 and
Table 3.2 shows the world’s largest ten cities, by population, for 2030
(estimated).
Using Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 state: the city which is in the top ten largest cities in 2030 but is not in the top ten largest cities in 2018
Kinshasa
Using Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 state: the city with the largest decrease in rank from 2018 to 2030.
Sao Paulo (from 4th to 9th)
Suggest problems for a country caused by the rapid growth of its
largest city.
Problems may include:
* Increased land prices
* Provision of housing
* Neglect of other areas, uneven development
* Congestion, pollution, etc.
* Further growth as services, jobs and other opportunities are
concentrated, leading to diseconomies of scale
* Concentration of political power
* Pressure on infrastructure and utilities
* Other
The figure shows new megacities predicted for 2030. Describe the distribution of the new megacities predicted for 2030 shown in the figure.
- Majority in LIC/MIC countries, 8/10?
- Concentration in Asia, particularly Eastern
- None in three continents: North America, South America and
Australasia/Oceania - 2 in Africa (Angola and Tanzania) / 1 in Europe (UK)
- Majority are north of the Equator (8 north and only 2 south of Equator)
- All eastern hemisphere
- Half (5) within the tropics
- Half on the coast
The figure shows the average annual population growth rate of cities, by
continent, 2000–18. Using the figure, 3.1, state the continent with the fastest growing city.
Asia
Using Fig. 3.1, state the continent which has only positive growth rates.
Australasia
The figure is a photograph which shows an out-of-town retail park in an
HIC in 2017. Describe the features of the retail park shown in the figure.
Indicative content:
* large area/floor space/buildings
* number of retail units
* abundant car parking
* good road links
* near to housing (customers) but screened from them
* on edge of town (open space in foreground)
Using evidence from the figure, suggest the factors which may have
attracted retailing to this location.
Indicative content could include:
* good communications to bring in customers and merchandise
* large floor space (flexible use)
* near to demand
* space for car parking
* away from congested city centres
* services provided e.g. common waste collection
* other shops, so can gain via complementary purchases
1 mark per reason up to a maximum of 2. 1 mark reserved for use of
evidence from Fig. There is no evidence for cheap land/rents.
The figure shows the number of selected retail outlets in the central
business district (CBD) of an urban area in the UK, an HIC, in 2000 and
2017. Calculate the change in the number of retail outlets between 2000 and
2017 shown in the figure. Show your working.
Indicative content:
* clothes and shoes – gone down from 10 to 5
* luxury items – up from 5 to 8
* department stores – down from 4 to 1
* So overall change is a loss of 5 retail outlets in these categories
1 mark for the change (must say if gain or loss) and 1 mark for the
workings.
Suggest two reasons for the changes in the types of selected retail
outlets shown in the figure
Indicative content could include:
* area has become more affluent – hence more luxury outlets
* increased competition from out-of-town centres, so fewer clothes and
shoes and department stores
* competition from online sales, so decrease in clothes and shoes and
department stores.
1 mark per reason with 2 marks for development up to the maximum.
The figure shows average journey distance to school, by settlement type
and age group, in England, UK, an HIC in Europe, in 2015. Using the figure, state the average journey distance to school for age group 11–16 for villages.
11.3 km
Using evidence from the figure, describe the relationship between type of
settlement and distance travelled to school.
Candidates should offer data from the figure to support the description.
Points for distance travelled include:
* rural settlements always greater than urban settlements
* increases with age for both rural and urban
* less gap between ages for both urban types
* other
1 mark for a simple point, 2 marks for a comparison with development or
support to the maximum. For reference to only one of age or distance, max. 2.
The figure shows the percentage of urban population, by city size, for
world regions in 2014. Using the figure, describe the variations in percentage of urban population in megacities by world region.
The variation is from 0% (Australasia) to 13% (Asia and South America and
Caribbean)
1 mark with no need to state the names plus one other valid point such as Europe (7%) much smaller than the rest;
Africa and North America similar – 11% and 12%.
Credit greater/most/fewer as descriptions of variations, i.e. figures are not
required. Simple list gains no credit.
Using the figure, compare the percentage of urban population, by city size,
for Europe with that of Asia.
Candidates should offer data from Fig. 3.1 to support the comparison.
Comparative values are in the table.
Points of comparison (max 1 if no comparison) include:
* Europe and Asia both have the highest percentage in urban areas smaller than 500 000, but Europe’s share is higher
* Europe has a higher share in both categories of below 1 million but Asia is higher in all cities greater than 1 million and above
* the second largest share in both regions is cities of 1–5 million but Asia’s share is higher than Europe’s
1 mark for each comparison to the maximum.
The figure is a photograph which shows part of the city of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, an MIC in South America. Suggest a type of economic activity in the area marked X on the figure.
Credit tourism or a named service activity based upon evidence which can
be seen in area X.
Valid named service could include hotels, cafes/restaurants, or beach
vendors.
Using evidence from the figure, describe how the competition for space
influences the characteristics of the buildings in the whole area shown
in the photograph.
Answers should include evidence from the figure:
* high rise buildings and/or tall buildings
* relatively narrow buildings
* densely packed/lack of open space
* building on steep slopes
* beach side activities
1 mark for a simple point, 2 marks for a point with supporting evidence from
the figure, up to the maximum.
What social factors might lead to residential segregation in urban
areas.
- discrimination
- outmigration influencing social structure
- in-migration of groups
- influence of family and friends
- cultural support
- safety in numbers
- age
- ethnic groups
- specialist services supporting specific groups
The figure shows part of a residential area in Athens, Greece, an HIC in
Europe. Describe the problems of urban living shown in the figure.
Indicative content:
- crime – vandalism/graffiti/visual pollution
- parking problems – safety for pedestrians and traffic
- lack of open green spaces
- lack of things to do for young people
- overcrowding – congested living space
- excess concrete leading to flooding/urban heat island
- isolation – lack of people
Briefly explain why an urban area may experience renewal.
- older areas decaying – run down, polluted
- out of date facilities and infrastructure
- creation of new image – rebranding
- change in function e.g. decline in industry
- for a special event e.g. Olympics
- following a major disaster e.g. earthquakes, war damage
- increased or decreased population or change in its structure
What issues may urban renewal create in urban settlements.
- economic e.g. cost of renewal, increased supply of services, impact on local tax base, higher rents, impact on traffic
- social e.g. loss of homes, increased gentrification, friction between groups
- demographic e.g. impact on population structure
- environmental e.g. risk of pollution from building phase
- political e.g. resistance from those who don’t want change
The figure shows a squatter settlement along a railway line in Mumbai,
India, an MIC in South Asia. Describe the characteristics of the buildings shown in the figure.
Indicative content:
* temporary or makeshift; not sturdy/durable
* made from waste or scrap materials – poor quality
* small dwellings
* no windows
* no/limited evidence of services – power, water, etc.
* close to each other
* mixture of single and two storeys
* colourful
Suggest reasons for the settlement shown in the figure.
Indicative content:
* cheap housing for people on low incomes
* temporary housing for newly arrived migrants – hope to get jobs and
upgrade housing
* discrimination in jobs/housing market – nowhere else
* conveniently near transport or jobs – reduces travel costs
* everywhere else already developed – so occupy marginal areas
* land is not owned by anyone
Explain the economic challenges for a city trying to manage
settlements like the one shown in the figure.
Economic challenges such as:
* cost of renewal/removal
* loss of cheap housing/labour
* cost of new/improved infrastructure such as transport and power
* low tax base
* constantly growing – improvement attracts more migrants
* cost of providing services
The figure is a photograph which shows part of Singapore, an HIC city
state, in Southeast Asia. Describe the land use shown in the figure.
These should be taken from the photograph and could include:
* high rise development
* offices
* recreation uses – big wheel
* leisure uses – parkland in foreground
* transport – raised road/bridge
Suggest two reasons for the high density development shown in the figure.
Indicative content:
* limited land area available
* it is high value land – bid rent idea
* high income generating area
* most accessible area – CBD or similar
* planning policy
* linkages between land uses
Using the figure, describe the changes in the urban area shown between 1991 and 2016.
Urban area has grown in extent
Growth has been inland and along the coast
Existing, smaller urban areas have grown
Urban areas have merged
There are some newly urbanised areas, e.g. around the large water body in the north west
etc.
Suggest benefits to people in the surrounding rural areas of expansion of urban areas such as those shown in the figure.
More work opportunities
Selling crops
Increased land value
Access to services
More inward investment over time
etc.
Explain the impacts of counter urbanisation on the competition for space in rural settlements.
Fundamentally, may lead to an increase in pressure on space and in some instances less demand for certain activities,
Increased pressure originates from increased population numbers of in-migrants who are relatively wealthy and is seen through rising house prices and land values as competition for space increases.
This may be beneficial for landowners but not necessarily for people who are original village inhabitants with fewer economic resources and who are out-competed.
This demand increase may lead to conversion or modernisation of existing buildings and the building of new (typically more expensive) homes and possibly new (larger) services taking up more space.
Traditional village services may be less in demand so these services may decline, reducing competition for space.
There may, however, be competition from other activities versus space for traditional rural land uses e.g., those linked to the growth of the new rural economy e.g., tourism.
