AL - L6 Settlement Dynamics Theory Flashcards

Question

Outline the benefits of megacities for the provision of services (aka - how do services benefit from being in megacities?).

Answer 1

Services have a large potential market Services can benefit from economies of scale There are cost benefits for services focusing their resources in one area There are profitability gains with large markets There is a labour supply to help fill job vacancies within certain services Services benefit from being local to transport and communication hubs

Answer 2

development of secondary and tertiary industries concentrated in large cities – demand for labour met by rapid influx of population from rural areas large pool of cheap, available labour an attraction to more industries including TNCs multiplier effect, which may attract new services and land uses to an area cities increase in status and power as a result of economic growth and natural increase > may result in world city status improved access to education and health care in urban areas out-migration from rural areas relieves pressure in rural areas – mechanisation of agriculture has reduced need for labour and resulted in less pressure on food supplies and services in rural areas

Answer 3

unemployment in the urban area as there are too many workers and not enough jobs. May also drive unemployment in rural areas as a result of outmigration Unplanned growth will result in the loss of agricultural land and unsafe construction Demand for housing outstrips supply and may lead to problems associated with informal, unplanned settlement development inadequate infrastructure – traffic congestion, sanitation issues etc. power supplies may not be extended quickly enough growth in crime and social problems resulting from higher rates of unemployment out-migration from rural areas can break up families, cause a loss of working age groups and produce an ageing population in rural areas agricultural decline and service decline can occur in rural areas.

Answer 4

Cities in HICs grew many years ago due to rural-urban migration so that the majority are now city dwellers. Added to this is the fall in birth and death rates and consequent natural increase. This migration has now all but ceased and death rates too have fallen. Delayed starting of families, smaller family units with little or no increase in housing stock, green belts (or similar planning restrictions), counter-urbanisation all contribute. In many HICs there is actually a decline in population rather than an increase which can be explained by counter-urbanisation and industrial decline,

Answer 5

LICs: - outskirts. Why? Land value is high in city centres, so low-income households are unable to compete. Land is at a premium but further out, it is often unclaimed or unclear who owns it, so informal settlements appear and propagate HICs: - inner city. Why? Historically, for the provision of workers. People then suburbanised and the quality of the inner city environment declined, leading to a decrease in land value. Property is often smaller and in areas characterised by higher crime and lower quality environmental metrics, so less appealing to higher-income households There are exceptions - government policy, redevelopment projects, help-to-buy schemes etc. are changing the landscape. 'Slum clearance' goals under the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals also plays a role

Answer 6

Centre - Outward CBD Inner City / Zone of Transition / Twilight Zone Low quality residential Medium quality residential High quality residential

Answer 7

There must be a uniform land space with no differences in physical geography There should be free competition for space There should be free access to transport in all directions Assumes a city grow outwards from a central core Assumes continuing in-migration to the city

Answer 8

Business district is in the middle – reason: maximum accessibility Notices that once variations arose in land use near to the centre, they tend to persist as the city expands High-income housing usually developed where there were distinct physical or social attractions Low-income housing is confined to the most unfavourable locations Major transport routes play a role in determining sectoral growth, particularly in relation to industry Medium and high-class housing near the centre, the oldest housing in both cases, was subject to suburban relocation by its residents, leading to deterioration, subdivision and occupation by low-income groups.

Answer 9

C.D. Harris and E. Ullman (1945) argued that the pattern of land use does not develop around a single centre but around a number of discrete nuclei. Some nuclei may be longer established than others (old villages may be incorporated into the city by urban expansion. Others (e.g. industrial estates for light manufacturing) are newer. Similar activities group together, benefitting from agglomeration, whilst some land uses repel others. Middle and high-income house buyers can afford to avoid residing close to industrial areas, which become the preserve of the poor. A rapid rate of urban expansion may result in some activities being disperser to new nuclei such as an out-of-town shopping centre.

Answer 10

Suggested by Alonso in 1964 Depicts the relationship between land value and distance from the CBD

Answer 11

The prospective land use willing, and able, to bid the most will gain the most central location. The land use able to bid the least will be relegated to the most peripheral location.

Answer 12

Commerce (particularly large department stores/chain stores) is willing to pay the greatest rent to be in the CBD. The CBD is very valuable for them because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a large population. This large population is essential for department stores, which require a considerable turnover and have large ranges and thresholds. As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value. They maximise the potential of their site by building multi-storey buildings and building densely.

Answer 13

Industry is willing to pay to be on the outskirts of the CBD. There is more land available for their factories, but they still have many of the benefits of the CBD, such as a marketplace and good communications. Factory workers lived in mainly terraced houses in the UK in a grid like pattern. These were originally built to house factory workers who worked in the inner-city factories. Many of these factories have now closed. This zone is also known as the Twilight zone or the Zone of Transition, an urban zone of a city where industry and residential areas mix, and the population is often transitory and constantly moving.

Answer 14

Further out of the city, land is less attractive to industry and the householder can purchase land. The further you go from the CBD, the cheaper the land. Therefore, inner-city areas are very densely populated (terraces, flats and high rises), whilst the suburbs and rural areas are sparsely populated (semi and detached houses with gardens). Better connections make it easier for people to travel into central areas for work/retail services. Land is more readily available to the cost is typically lower further out from the city centre.

Answer 15

The age of area in question → buildings get older toward the city centre, except most CBDs and inner-city areas have been redeveloped and modernised Land values: → increase rapidly from the city boundary as you move toward the CBD Accessibility → some functions rely more heavily on transport connections than others

Answer 16

The exam board definition is: Functional zonation is where different land-uses and activities (functions) are found concentrated together in certain parts of the urban area, with other functions not found, under-represented or excluded, e.g. a zone of manufacturing industry, or lawyers’ offices all near one another. [3]

Answer 17

They occur as a result of: The attraction of like functions to increase custom – means that some areas grow in their specific function over time The operation of bid-rent and spatial competition Linkages – e.g. efficiency of doing business with each other Planning decisions may promote the location of certain industries in certain areas = zonation Accessibility may play a role Social factors – ethnic enclaves… Physical factors – industry may locate along a river for example

Answer 18

Aids the consumer e.g., for comparison shopping (saves travel and lowers costs etc.) Reduces pollution in certain areas by zoning like functions (e.g., less air pollution in residential areas) Sharing of ideas/linkages between like functions or businesses Time/cost saving for the function itself

Answer 19

May concentrate pollution in certain areas Can lead to congestion if poorly managed Increased competition for businesses Consumers may have to travel further for comparison goods

Answer 20

Functional zonation is seen in urban areas where some functions cluster in certain parts of the town or city, often with a noticeable absence of other functions as a result. Zonation can also occur in a vertical sense. Examples in CBDs in HICs are high class retail, shoe shops, solicitors, etc. Zones may also be industrial, transport, entertainment, etc. Reasons could include: attraction of like functions to increase custom the operation of bid-rent and spatial competition comparison behaviour, such as comparison shopping linkages, e.g., efficiency of doing business with each other planning decisions accessibility social factors e.g., ethnic enclaves physical factors e.g., along rivers for transport

Answer 21

(classically) the most accessible part of the city central position, focus of public transport systems competition for space from functions that rely on / profit from large numbers of people as customers or workers such functions willing to pay high prices for land or building space that is in short supply as potential high profits linked to accessibility bid rent theory – “the prospective land use willing and able to bid the most will gain the most central location”.

Answer 22

High prices lead to maximised use of land / little unused land so high building density and vertical and underground developments Concentration of high quality dept. stores, chain stores and comparison goods shops that require high footfall, and high rents affordable Concentration of banks and businesses that rely on large numbers of customers and / or workers so high rents justified Absence of manufacturing industry and low residential population – these land uses are outbid

Answer 23

- Old Core - often narrow streets / historical core (e.g., The Backs in Cambridge/The Lanes in Brighton) - Very Accessible - due to the convergence of major rail and road routes (often find public transport meets here - e.g., railway stations / bus stations) - Traffic Restrictions are often in place to deal with the large numbers of traffic and ensure safety for the high numbers of pedestrians. - Often has a central Market square area - Very High Land Values - due to lack of space and competition for land - Little/ No Residential Land Use - due to high land-values there is usually no residential land-use apart from the possibility of some flats above shops - Multi-storey buildings - due to high land values resulting in building up rather than out - Shops Offices and specialist buildings e.g., Banks, buildings societies etc. (need to be accessible and can afford the high land values) - Mainly National Chain stores (have high threshold population and can afford the high land-values associated with the CBD - e.g., M&S; WHS; Next etc) - High numbers of pedestrians - 2 daily rush hours (am and pm) - Many now have undercover shopping centres - Presence of public buildings / government buildings (e.g., Town Hall etc.) - museums / castles / historical buildings (e.g., museums / University buildings) - Entertainment - restaurants, clubs etc.

Answer 24

Intensive land use Dense structure Vertical use of space Small residential population Specialised functions/ clustering of certain functions e.g. retail, finance Avoid: 'busy' or 'lots of shops' - terminology should be of a good geographical standard

Answer 25

Increased car ownership = congestion High land values High competition for land Restrictions on building - some buildings may be 'listed' Increasing accessibility out of town where land values are cheaper

Answer 26

Disadvantages of CBD: high costs, inconvenience, congestion, poor access, lack of room to expand, lack of parking for customers, crime, etc. Advantages of CBD: lower bid-rent, savings on journey times, route nodes and (edge) junctions give good access, available space (expansion, car parking, storage, etc.), greener site, relative quiet, purpose-built retail park or estate, attracts custom from wider area

Answer 27

Command term is describe - not explain! Retail found in settlements of all sizes in towns and cities in HICs and LICs. Some larger settlements offer more scope. Changes from the local 'corner shop' in a residential area to a suburban shopping centre in larger towns Out of town shopping centres and retail parks or estates near main roads or junctions in peripheral areas.

Answer 28

Environmental/physical, e.g. relief, rivers, wind direction, etc. Economic, e.g. transport routes, linkages, complementary, etc. Social, e.g. life cycle, ethnic or cultural clustering, reputation, etc. Political, e.g. planning controls, green belts, taxes/rates, etc.

Answer 29

Population structure e.g. dependency ratios increase in rural areas as elderly remain and economically active migrate away. Population decline (depopulation) in rural areas... Settlement changes e.g. in size, state of buildings (development of more age related residential e.g., retirement housing / assisted living) Economic e.g. type and range of economic activity (service decline, decline in transport provision, loss of youth services e.g., schools etc) / reduced funding from government Social and cultural e.g. type and level of education

Answer 30

* Urban‒rural migration * Counter urbanisation * Resource exploitation * Agricultural development * Relocation schemes * Natural increase * More homeworking/internet

Answer 31

– dominance of users able to pay high prices – other users forced out – maximising use of space by building up (and down) – little unused land and loss of green cover – replacement of older buildings – highly active property market, advertising, etc.

Answer 32

Services include retailing, education, tourism etc. Changing covers growth and/or decline (including a shift in the balance). Demand is changing due to: population change rising standards/expectations changes in wealth and inequality Remote areas in HICs are losing services such as schools and post offices whilst more accessible areas are gaining services. Remote areas in LICs may be gaining services (albeit from a low base) as development trickles down and outward from the main cities.

Answer 33

Could take a HIC and/or LIC approach. * loss of community and traditional social fabric * population change * outmigration of some of the original rural residents * increase in pollution (air, water, land, noise) * environmental degradation, e.g. removal of trees, loss of wildlife * shift in values from rural/traditional to urban/modern * conservation of landmarks and traditional buildings * change in employment structure * change in services and infrastructure

Answer 34

* Cost – building/operating/using * Need for land in a crowded area – conflict * Opposition from locals * Pollution, noise, etc., caused during building * Issues of peak demand * Private or public ownership

Answer 35

Residential segregation refers to the physical separation of cultural groups based on residence and housing. People are residentially segregated across a number of dimensions, including socio-economic status, religion and race & ethnicity. Racial: apartheid in South Africa and red lining in the USA Economic: as the rich pull away from the rest of society, they either relocate to areas where other affluent families live, or they tend to bid up the price of local housing. Gated communities may form. The spiralling costs of housing, in turn, displace families with lower incomes. Traditionally the wealthy are located close to the CBD in LICs. Ethnic/social: different racial and ethnic groups are segregated. Social and ethnic differences are closely related to each other in American cities, and the vast majority of the most underprivileged social and occupational groups come from among African Americans. As the most underprivileged ethnic groups, besides their unfavourable social position, they are also afflicted by a whole series of ethnic prejudices and discrimination. Thus in North American cities low-status groups are segregated in similarly few, large, and spatially coherent areas as the high-status groups.

Answer 36

Causes could include: * physical: space, relief, drainage, south facing, views * economic: income/wealth, house types/prices, jobs, transport * social preference of residents: priorities (travel/schools), racial or ethnic clustering, discrimination * political: land use zoning, planning, social housing * historical: old colonial pattern * combinations of the above Processes should examine those processes that lead to segregation so may overlap with causes. Processes could include: * core/periphery processes such as spread/backwash * cycles of decline/growth * social and political issues resulting in social or economic segregation * housing policy: type, cost and ownership of housing * gradual change in character of neighbourhoods (tipping) * degeneration/regeneration of areas, gentrification

Answer 37

Residential segregation: *by income: ability to pay rent *socially race and/or ethnicity *Operation of the housing market *A result of planning and policy decisions *Cultural factors - ethnic enclaves within urban arres

Answer 38

*migrants cluster together to reduce feelings of isolation and preserve identity and cultural heritage *provide a defence related to fear of conflict with surrounding groups *migrants can more easily carry out activities that promote solidarity and safety *limited financial resources may mean limited access and choice of housing

Answer 39

* high order retail (shops and stores) * businesses/commercial * offices of professional services, e.g. accountants, lawyers * banks and other financial services * government * public buildings, e.g. library, hall * transport, e.g. railway station, car parks * other, e.g. churches, green areas, monuments.

Answer 40

Changes in the urban area may include: * urban area has grown in extent * growth has been inland and along the coast * existing, smaller urban areas have grown * urban areas have merged * there are some newly urbanised areas, e.g. around the large water body in the north west * other valid changes

Answer 41

* most growth from 1990 to 2000 occurs to the north and south-east of the CBD (1) * from 2000 to 2013 most of the growth occurs to the west and south-west (1) * in both time periods there is infill/joining of existing areas together (1) and extension of the urban area (1) * growth from 1990 to 2000 largely occurs in areas with main roads but less so from 2000 to 2013 (1)

Answer 42

2006 or 2007

Answer 43

Both increase (1), urban at a faster rate (1), with both changing rate (slower for rural after 2001) (1). MUST USE DATA

Answer 44

Point mark – 1 mark per valid point. A simple statement of change is acceptable. No credit for stating a difference, e.g. unemployment differs by 3.3%. * Professionals increased (by 12.2%) * Unemployment fell (by 3.3%) * Average age increased (by 12 years) * % not born in the country fell (by 23%) * Average household size decreased (by 3.8)

Answer 45

* An inner urban area undergoing gentrification – wealthy move in * An urban area maturing as migrants settle and develop careers * An area that has been redeveloped/upgraded by the government * Increased tertiary education so more professionals * Decrease in BR due to education/careers for females, so household size decreases * An area where employment structure has changed, e.g. offices replacing factories

Answer 46

Features could include: * Large houses – 5 storeys * Balconies and shrubs * Very grand entrance – far left * Opposite park / wood * Expensive cars outside * Well kept (e.g. no litter, vandalism, decay)

Answer 47

* Parking – no garages visible * Small / no front gardens, so street noise * Disturbance / pollution from traffic * Terraced so noise from neighbours * High cost of upkeep – clearly all done together (no choice of colours, etc.) * High cost (rents, etc.)

Answer 48

* New airport in NW * New industrial area and informal housing near the airport * New dam on the river * New resort on river * New informal housing around industry in the SE * More informal housing * More high class housing * New high class housing along the coast in SE and up the west of the river * New inner high class housing near bridge to the island CBD

Answer 49

Sao Paulo (from 4th to 9th)

Answer 50

Problems may include: * Increased land prices * Provision of housing * Neglect of other areas, uneven development * Congestion, pollution, etc. * Further growth as services, jobs and other opportunities are concentrated, leading to diseconomies of scale * Concentration of political power * Pressure on infrastructure and utilities * Other

Answer 51

* Majority in LIC/MIC countries, 8/10? * Concentration in Asia, particularly Eastern * None in three continents: North America, South America and Australasia/Oceania * 2 in Africa (Angola and Tanzania) / 1 in Europe (UK) * Majority are north of the Equator (8 north and only 2 south of Equator) * All eastern hemisphere * Half (5) within the tropics * Half on the coast

Answer 52

Australasia

Answer 53

Indicative content: * large area/floor space/buildings * number of retail units * abundant car parking * good road links * near to housing (customers) but screened from them * on edge of town (open space in foreground)

Answer 54

Indicative content could include: * good communications to bring in customers and merchandise * large floor space (flexible use) * near to demand * space for car parking * away from congested city centres * services provided e.g. common waste collection * other shops, so can gain via complementary purchases 1 mark per reason up to a maximum of 2. 1 mark reserved for use of evidence from Fig. There is no evidence for cheap land/rents.

Answer 55

Indicative content: * clothes and shoes – gone down from 10 to 5 * luxury items – up from 5 to 8 * department stores – down from 4 to 1 * So overall change is a loss of 5 retail outlets in these categories 1 mark for the change (must say if gain or loss) and 1 mark for the workings.

Answer 56

Indicative content could include: * area has become more affluent – hence more luxury outlets * increased competition from out-of-town centres, so fewer clothes and shoes and department stores * competition from online sales, so decrease in clothes and shoes and department stores. 1 mark per reason with 2 marks for development up to the maximum.

Answer 57

Candidates should offer data from the figure to support the description. Points for distance travelled include: * rural settlements always greater than urban settlements * increases with age for both rural and urban * less gap between ages for both urban types * other 1 mark for a simple point, 2 marks for a comparison with development or support to the maximum. For reference to only one of age or distance, max. 2.

Answer 58

The variation is from 0% (Australasia) to 13% (Asia and South America and Caribbean) 1 mark with no need to state the names plus one other valid point such as Europe (7%) much smaller than the rest; Africa and North America similar – 11% and 12%. Credit greater/most/fewer as descriptions of variations, i.e. figures are not required. Simple list gains no credit.

Answer 59

Candidates should offer data from Fig. 3.1 to support the comparison. Comparative values are in the table. Points of comparison (max 1 if no comparison) include: * Europe and Asia both have the highest percentage in urban areas smaller than 500 000, but Europe’s share is higher * Europe has a higher share in both categories of below 1 million but Asia is higher in all cities greater than 1 million and above * the second largest share in both regions is cities of 1–5 million but Asia’s share is higher than Europe’s 1 mark for each comparison to the maximum.

Answer 60

Credit tourism or a named service activity based upon evidence which can be seen in area X. Valid named service could include hotels, cafes/restaurants, or beach vendors.

Answer 61

Answers should include evidence from the figure: * high rise buildings and/or tall buildings * relatively narrow buildings * densely packed/lack of open space * building on steep slopes * beach side activities 1 mark for a simple point, 2 marks for a point with supporting evidence from the figure, up to the maximum.

Answer 62

* discrimination * outmigration influencing social structure * in-migration of groups * influence of family and friends * cultural support * safety in numbers * age * ethnic groups * specialist services supporting specific groups

Answer 63

Indicative content: * crime – vandalism/graffiti/visual pollution * parking problems – safety for pedestrians and traffic * lack of open green spaces * lack of things to do for young people * overcrowding – congested living space * excess concrete leading to flooding/urban heat island * isolation – lack of people

Answer 64

* older areas decaying – run down, polluted * out of date facilities and infrastructure * creation of new image – rebranding * change in function e.g. decline in industry * for a special event e.g. Olympics * following a major disaster e.g. earthquakes, war damage * increased or decreased population or change in its structure

Answer 65

* economic e.g. cost of renewal, increased supply of services, impact on local tax base, higher rents, impact on traffic * social e.g. loss of homes, increased gentrification, friction between groups * demographic e.g. impact on population structure * environmental e.g. risk of pollution from building phase * political e.g. resistance from those who don’t want change

Answer 66

Indicative content: * temporary or makeshift; not sturdy/durable * made from waste or scrap materials – poor quality * small dwellings * no windows * no/limited evidence of services – power, water, etc. * close to each other * mixture of single and two storeys * colourful

Answer 67

Indicative content: * cheap housing for people on low incomes * temporary housing for newly arrived migrants – hope to get jobs and upgrade housing * discrimination in jobs/housing market – nowhere else * conveniently near transport or jobs – reduces travel costs * everywhere else already developed – so occupy marginal areas * land is not owned by anyone

Answer 68

Economic challenges such as: * cost of renewal/removal * loss of cheap housing/labour * cost of new/improved infrastructure such as transport and power * low tax base * constantly growing – improvement attracts more migrants * cost of providing services

Answer 69

These should be taken from the photograph and could include: * high rise development * offices * recreation uses – big wheel * leisure uses – parkland in foreground * transport – raised road/bridge

Answer 70

Indicative content: * limited land area available * it is high value land – bid rent idea * high income generating area * most accessible area – CBD or similar * planning policy * linkages between land uses

Answer 71

Urban area has grown in extent Growth has been inland and along the coast Existing, smaller urban areas have grown Urban areas have merged There are some newly urbanised areas, e.g. around the large water body in the north west etc.

Answer 72

More work opportunities Selling crops Increased land value Access to services More inward investment over time etc.

Answer 73

Fundamentally, may lead to an increase in pressure on space and in some instances less demand for certain activities, Increased pressure originates from increased population numbers of in-migrants who are relatively wealthy and is seen through rising house prices and land values as competition for space increases. This may be beneficial for landowners but not necessarily for people who are original village inhabitants with fewer economic resources and who are out-competed. This demand increase may lead to conversion or modernisation of existing buildings and the building of new (typically more expensive) homes and possibly new (larger) services taking up more space. Traditional village services may be less in demand so these services may decline, reducing competition for space. There may, however, be competition from other activities versus space for traditional rural land uses e.g., those linked to the growth of the new rural economy e.g., tourism.

AL - L6 Settlement Dynamics Theory Flashcards

to help consolidate settlement theory relating to CAIE's AL Geography specification. This deck does not contain case study specifics - you must learn these on your own!