Ideologies: Socialism Flashcards
What is socialism?
-ideology that emphasises collective ownership, equal opportunities + social justice & advocate for state intervention or public control to promote welfare and redistribution of wealth
Origins of socialism: Enlightenment era
-grew out of the Enlightenment and industrial age
-much in common with liberalism
-grew out of its opposition to capitalism
i.e optimistic view of human nature,
reason over faith/superstition,
‘progressive’ - believe in reform and challenging status quo, desire to liberate humans from oppression, belief in social equality, belief in collective action, reject anarchism
Origins of socialism: criticism of private property + industrial revolution
-1789 French Revolution (individuals led ‘a conspiracy of the equals’ which set out socialist principles i.e no private property, party to amplify ideas)
-increase of criticism in Germany + Britain during the 18th + 19th centuries due to industrial revolution
-socialists believe that an individual’s status, priorities and prospects are
shaped by their class and their class is shaped by its status within the economy
-created distinct classes based on employment and income
Origins of socialism: ‘utopias’
-Fourier + Owen were utopian socialists who wanted ‘model villages’ based on common ownership + co-operative communities
-Marx and Engels criticised this in the communist manifesto: “they wish to deprive class struggle of all practical significance..” (too idealistic + ignore the need for proletariat revolution)
Origins of socialism: ‘utopias’
-Fourier + Owen were utopian socialists who wanted ‘model villages’ based on common ownership + co-operative communities
-Marx and Engels criticised this in the communist manifesto: “they wish to deprive class struggle of all practical significance..” (too idealistic + ignore the need for proletariat revolution)
Key thinkers: Marx(1818-83) and Engels(1820-95)
-rejected liberal view that capitalism promotes prosperity + individual liberty—} saw it as creating surplus value where employees were paid minimum wage to allow most profit to be used for bettering means of production
-this would implant in capitalism its own destruction + lead to bourgeoisie creating its “own grave diggers” (Communist Manifesto)
-believe that humans were social and economic beings(contaminated by capitalism)—} instilled ’false consciousness’ = replaced original cooperative + selfless nature with selfishness + greed
-capitalism classified society into bourgeoise + proletariat, saw class differences/inequality of wealth and power as toxic
-proletariat revolution was historically inevitable
-saw the state as a ‘committee’ for the ruling capitalist class, who couldn’t provide an evolutionary road to socialism
-believed that ’the dictatorship of the proletariat’ should arise in the wake of a revolution = govern in interests of them
-over time socialism would ‘wither away’ + be replaced with communism(principle of: “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs”)
Key thinker: Rosa Luxemburg(1871-191)
-was a member of the German Social Democrat party(SPD) + wanted them to contest elections as engagement in existing system would make it easier for communist parties to convey their revolutionary view to the masses(foundation for neo-Marxist beliefs)
-agreed with Marx’s argument that capitalism promoted exploitation + conflicted with human’s natural, fraternal instincts
-agreed that only revolution could create real change but disliked Marx’s historicism view(capitalism would have to reach an advanced stage for revolution to occur)
-envisaged revolution as occurring ‘spontaneously’ as a result of class consciousness becoming more common due to the proletariat fighting for progress in the workplace(mass strike = overthrowing of capitalist state)
-advocated for a new democracy that upheld common ownership rather than the inevitable ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’(part of Marxist-Leninist argument)
Key thinker: Beatrice Webb(1854-1943)
-principles of democratic socialism:
• capitalism was the principle cause of ‘crippling poverty and demeaning inequality’ + caused ‘unnatural’ levels of greed
• conservative paternalism/philanthropy were not sustainable solutions to poverty + inequality (solved by trade unionism + extensive state intervention)
• effective reform tends to be gradual not revolutionary
-she was active in the Fabian society(committed to evolutionary socialism via reforms made at Westminster)
-involved in drafting Clause IV of Labour’s 1918 constitution(pursuing common ownership via the existing political system)
-lead author of Minority report 1909 which advocates for “sufficient nourishment and training when young.. modest but secure livelihood when disabled or aged” —} helped inspire Beveridge report + welfare state reforms
Key thinker: Anthony Crosland(1918-77)
-served as cabinet minster during Labour govts of 1960s and 70s
-true objective of socialism was equality not common ownership + this could be achieved by a managed capitalist economy
-societies could afford permanent economic growth + full employment under Keynesian principles — therefore able to expand welfare state to diminish inequality
-economic change has led to less polarisation between employers + employees(class dealignment): ‘new classes’ of ‘meritocratic managers’ and ‘classless technocrats’
-socialism required ‘mixed economy’ (private enterprise + ownership alongside small no. of state owned industries)—} argued it existed in 1945-51 Labour govts + led to more public spending + services
-advocated for comprehensive education: ‘one size fits all’ schools would break down class divisions + ensure equality of opportunity(pursued this while secretary of state for education in the 60s)
Key thinker: Anthony Giddens(1938-)
-revisionist socialist as he advocated the case for further state intervention in an era of globalised capitalism
-wrote ‘The Third Way: the renewal of social democracy’ during the 1997 general election—} suggested that survival of social democracy showed that free-market capitalism was best at empowering individuals
-believed in triangulation: reconciling traditional social democracy with free-market capitalism(industrial units of production led to tight-knit urban communities)
-accepted that rise of ‘atomism’ during post-industrial capitalism of the late 20th/early 21st century was liberating BUT believed it would to less confidence in identity and more conformity to the ‘elites’ : ”In a world of choice, the self becomes a reflexive project.”
Socialist view of human nature: Optimistic
-influenced by Enlightenment era so are confident human beings are destined for an improved world
-”a better tomorrow is conceivable, achievable and probable” - Webb
-some earlier socialists were depicted as utopian socialists, whose ‘model’
communities reflected an ideal society
-even Marx(who rejected utopianism) predicted communism would be a secular paradise, where problems
were banished + human beings were
wise and happy
Socialist view of human nature: Fraternal
-socialists see humans as naturally
inclined to generosity & concern for
others(unlike liberals’ egotistical view)
-humans are naturally collaborative(not competitive like liberals), seeing each other as siblings rather than rivals
-”our instinct is not to win but to share.. the fruits of victory with others” -Luxemburg
-Giddens supported ‘co-operative’ instincts: high earners in a capitalist economy could finance help for the less fortunate by paying more in tax+ increasing state public spending
Socialist view of human nature: Rational
-Humans are naturally logical and
rational—} make sensible’
decisions with reason + collaboration
-Webb + Crosland emphasise humans’ capacity to collectively plan
progress
-Webb rejected laissez- faire approach to economic + social activity — believed a state driven by educated people, could ‘gradually but inevitably’ guide us to an ever-improving life
Socialist view of human nature: Communal
-we seek to be part of a community rather than autonomy: ”we are not lone wolves..” -Webb
-solidarity would act as a catalyst for ‘spontaneous revolution’ according to Luxemburg
-Marx argued that once capitalism was destroyed, people would realise that selfishness was a symptom of ‘false consciousness’ and see that service to community is a source of individual pleasure
Socialist view of human nature: Malleable
Socialism sees human nature as changeable, rather than permanently fixed—} allows them to excuse humanity’s defects i.e Marx and Engels claimed human nature had been
‘contaminated’ by forces beyond the control of individuals in the Communist Manifesto
Giddens & New Labour claimed govts shouldn’t just be tough on crime, but tough on the causes of it (shows that human nature is not wicked but can be influenced by evil around us)
Socialist view of society: Existential
-society is existentially significant
to the human condition—} without a proper appreciation of society, any understanding of human nature is impossible: ”we cannot separate who we are from the sort of society we have” -Crosland
-socialists believe that traditional societies damage the potential and the attitude of their individual members (should be malleable)
Socialist view of society: Collectivist
-idea that efforts are morally superior when tied to the efforts and interests of others
-individuals are at their most
effective when they act as a unit
-promotes idea that individual interests must always be secondary to the interests of society collectively
Socialist view of society: Class-focused
-There is a class division
between manual/blue-collar and non-manual/white-collar workers, which reflects a split between those who are paid well and those who aren’t
-Marx and Engels termed these the bourgeoisie and proletariat
-see society is shaped and defined by class differences and class conflict +
argue that individuals are limited by the social class in which they are born -inequalities between the different
social classes then create broader inequalities in society
Socialist view of society: Egalitarian
-For society to have real equality of opportunity, it must also have greater equality of outcome, where differences
in wealth + power are reduced, and the gap between rich + poor is narrowed
-advocate for a society that is egalitarian/equal
-Legal justice is insufficient and must
be accompanied by social justice to combat the fact that someone born into a lower-class background will have fewer opportunities than one born into a higher-class background
-”the humble should be made mightier and the mighty made humbler”-Webb
Socialist view of the economy: Fundamental
-Marx argued it was impossible to understand political argument, or
how the state works without first understanding how the economy works -for any historic change to occur, radical
political change had to be accompanied with radical economic change
(counterpoint)
-Giddens though it was possible to create a better society without overhauling the existing capitalist
economy
Socialist view of the economy: Redistributive
-insist the creation of an egalitarian society must involve redistribution of wealth and resources so the gap
between the richest and poorest classes -this principle was reflected in the Labour Party manifesto of 1974(endorsed by Crosland) which promised ”..shift of wealth and power, in favour of working people and their families”
Socialist view of the economy: Redistributive
-insist the creation of an egalitarian society must involve redistribution of wealth and resources so the gap
between the richest and poorest classes -this principle was reflected in the Labour Party manifesto of 1974(endorsed by Crosland) which promised ”..shift of wealth and power, in favour of working people and their families”
Socialist view of the economy: Ambivalent about capitalism
-argument on whether ‘shift of wealth and power’ can occur in an economy based on private property and not common ownership
-revolutionary socialists such
as Marx, Luxemburg and Webb believe capitalism is completely incompatible with socialist economics(generates wealth disparities)
-evolutionary socialists like Crosland and
Giddens effective capitalism is the precondition of an effective socialist economic policy(can grow wealth which can then be redistributed equitably)—} “.. difficult to redistribute wealth if there is no wealth to redistribute..” -Crosland
Socialist view of the economy: Interventionist
-agree that there should be greater govt intervention + reject a laissez-faire form of capitalism, where ‘minimalist’ govts allow capitalism and market forces to operate freely(have adopted a more ‘hands on approach’ i.e Keynesian capitalism)
-they would have supported
the Equal Pay Act 1970(Crosland’s Labour), which ensured equal pay for men and women doing similar work
Socialist view of the state: Rejection of anarchism
-socialism is distinct from
anarchism due to its belief that equality
+ progress are impossible without a
strong state
-socialism can be defined
as ‘state-sponsored egalitarianism’
-eventhough Marx argued that the state will wither away and lead to a utopian anarchist society aka communism, he accepted that a strong state was essential
Socialist view of the state: Rejection of ‘medieval’ states
-they reject monarchial(based on absolute authority of one person)
theocratic(based on religious principles) + aristocratic(based on hereditary ruling class) states
-advocate for a state where political
power as well as economic power
has been redistributed + where
decision making reflects fraternity
Socialist view of the state: an enlarged state
-they reject the ‘libertarian’ states advocated by modern conservative thinkers like Nozick(minimal role)—} this kind of state will only allow further selfish individualism + exploitation of the
less fortunate which leads to further inequality
-socialists agree that the state should
enlarge and are keen to extend state sponsored collectivism.
-Statist collectivism will include:
• progressive taxation, where the
state ensures the rich pay more than the poor
• greater public spending, where the state uses tax to improve the condition of lower class
• universal public services, where the state uses tax to guarantee public services accessible to all
What is revolutionary socialism?
-strand advocated by Marx, Engels and Luxemburg
-both the current political and economic systems must be quickly + entirely dismantled for socialism to be achieved
Revolutionary socialism: critique of capitalism
-Marxist ideology is distinguished by its fierce criticism of capitalism(specifically during the industrial revolution of 18th/19th century)
-capitalism gave rise to the
bourgeoisie and proletariat, producing class conflict – a tension that would destroy capitalist society. The
bourgeoisie owned the mode of production in a capitalist economy, enabling them to exploit + oppress the proletariat, i.e through paying low wages.
The concept of ‘surplus value’ encouraged the bourgeoisie to pay workers less than the real value
of their labour—} under capitalism,
workers suffered alienation from the fruits of their labour and were dehumanised by this
-Marx argued human nature was but was corrupted by capitalism, which fostered selfish self-interest.
-the ultimate flaw in capitalism was that it was an inefficient mode of production; it consistently failed to provide for
the majority.
Revolutionary socialism: ‘Inevitability’ of revolution
-Marx and Engels believed capitalism’s demise was inevitable, it
‘sowed the seeds of its own destruction’ -Marx predicted each of the economic crises produced by capitalism would be worse than the last, the plight of the proletariat would steadily worsen—} would lead to a revolution that destroys both capitalism and the existing state
-they also dismissed capitalism reform by the existing state — argued
all states served the interests of the bourgeoisie
-revolution was ‘historically inevitable’ which drew upon the historicism of Friedrich Hegel, who argued history was ‘episodic’: a series of stages involving a
clash of philosophical ideas. Each stage was a clash of economic ideas & economic interests - historical materialism
Revolutionary socialism: from socialism to communism
-they predicted that’s new socialist state, ‘the dictatorship of the proletariat’ would
emerge
-it would oversee the replacement of private ownership with common ownership, and emergence of a new culture that stressed fraternity and solidarity
-once this was complete, the
socialist state would wither away and eventually replaced by a stateless, utopian society known as communism (final stage of economic evolution based on principle of ‘from each occurring to his ability, to each according to his needs’)
Revolutionary socialism: Marx’s 5 stages of history
-primitive communism – early societies shared everything; no private property or class divisions
-slave Society – class society begins; rulers own slaves who do all the work.
-feudalism – lords own land, peasants work it; society divided by status and birth
-capitalism – bourgeoisie own businesses, workers sell labour; marked by exploitation and class struggle
-communism – classless, stateless society; workers own everything collectively and share resources
What are the origins of the Marxism-Leninism view?
-developed by Lenin* from Marxist theory to fit the conditions of early 20th-century Russia
*leader of Russia’s Bolshevik party + key figure during Russian revolution
Marxism-Leninism: pre-emptive revolution
-Lenin agreed with Marx’s critique of capitalism + the belief that communism was inevitable
-Lenin + Luxemburg were concerned with Marx’s idea that revolution was only possible in societies where capitalism was advanced(meant that less developed countries would have to endure decades of oppressive rule)
-Lenin argued that pre-industrial societies should use revolution to pre-empt the development of capitalism, so industrialisation took place under a
socialist, not bourgeois state
Marxism-Leninism: Vanguardism
-Lenin’s idea of a revolutionary party (or vanguard), would perform 4 crucial tasks:
-it would plan the revolutionary overthrow of the existing state(such as Tsar in 20th century)
-escape false consciousness by re-educating the masses into the basic virtues of socialism
-after the revolution, the vanguard would form the Communist Party, which would embody Marx’s dictatorship of the proletariat—} it would prepare the
ground for communism and the ‘end of history’
-the communist party would embody Lenin’s ‘democratic centralism’, which would involve a one-party state, with debate only occurring within the party(decision would represent the will of the masses)
What were the results of Marxism-Leninism?
-shaped the ‘socialist revolutions’ in Soviet Union, Mao’s China after 1949, Cuba, North Korea + Vietnam—} all led to totalitarianism(concentration of political power + elimination of all political opposition)
Marxism-Leninism: The Luxemburg Version
-shared Marx’s dislike for capitalism and + belief in the inevitability of a revolution
-like Lenin, she rejected Marx’s view that socialism could only occur after capitalism reached an advanced stage
-Luxemburg challenged Marxism-Leninism in three areas:
- rejected Lenin’s vanguard approach to revolution, saw this as a new form of elitism. instead, she advocated for a revolution that was spontaneous and was driven by things like trade unions
- she shared Marx and Lenin’s belief in revolution but didn’t accept that engagement with the existing state was pointless. she saw the state’s election campaigns as an opportunity to enable class consciousness, which would speed up the spontaneous revolution she wanted. Parties like the German Communist Party could use their own campaigns to explain need for revolution and use seats as a platform for revolutionary propaganda
-after the revolution, she wanted a new socialist state that would be neither a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ nor a ‘one-party state’. instead, she advocated a new democratic state which would have state ownership of the economy but allow fair elections and genuine competition
-influenced the Socialist Workers Party UK: “..we want to see a revolution where the majority of people take control in society and transform the world..”
What was democratic socialism?
-socialists such as Webb and groups like the Fabian Society began to challenge the idea that socialism + the displacement of capitalism must happen through revolution(instead looked to more of a rational society)
-saw revolutionary socialism as counter-productive + thought it created a version of instability/unpredictability that plagued capitalism
-believed that democratically elected governments would transform society via the existing parliamentary system i.e
restoring parliamentary sovereignty through leaving the EEC
-during the 20th century, evolutionary
socialism became highly influential due to the post-war Attlee govt + establishment of welfare state
Democratic socialism: a renewed critique of capitalism
-the Fabian Society realised capitalism hadn’t bought the misery predicted
by Marx + found the economic condition of working class improved
-BUT they still rejected capitalism as a long-term economic system—} Webb argued an economy based on private ownership was ‘unpredictable’ + advocated for a planned economy, where ‘economic interests could be constructively resolved by elected governments’
For this to happen, a post-capitalist economy was needed i.e writing of Clause IV in 1918: “equitable distribution..upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production..”
Democratic socialism: the existing state
-democratic socialists argued revolution
replicated the problems they associated with capitalism—} Webb believed that the state in a capitalist society was more responsive than Marx envisaged i.e in the UK, the franchise had been extended
and no longer reserved for the bourgeoisie which encouraged
legislation improving the condition for the poor like the Factory Act 1874(reduced the working day for women and children to 10 hours + min working age of 10)
-she concluded that democratic socialist
govts could use this method to bring about more radical socialist change i.e universal adult suffrage and a working-class electorate that would vote for socialism
Democratic socialism: Gradualism
-according to Fabians, democratic socialist govts could use the existing state to promote a ‘slow but steady’ movement to public ownership
and socialism.
-many see the post-war Labour
govt as an example of ‘gradualist’ democratic socialism—} 2/3rds of the Labour MPs elected in 1945 had Fabian Society connections including the PM Attlee
-they gradually implemented a series of measures including the nationalisation of industries like coal, iron and steel
How did Labour’s 2019 manifesto promote democratic socialism?
-based on principles that would serve ‘the many not the few’
-believed in extending state power to: mail, water and energy services into public ownership, provide greater funding for the NHS etc
What was social democracy?
-strand that rejects revolution + believes the existing state could promote a
socialist agenda
-Unlike democratic socialists, social democrats like Crosland don’t support the disappearance of capitalism + see it as the ally of socialist govts
Social democracy: redefining of class
-Crosland argued the ‘us and them’ society of traditional socialism was redundant
-there was a new ‘meritocratic manager’ class, who were directing the post war economy, without owning it(Marx’s link between control + ownership of production was broken)
-according to Crosland, members
of this class weren’t exploited proletariat or exploiting bourgeoise
Social democracy: mixed economy
-Attlee’s government had nationalised significant sections of the economy, one that was largely capitalist but with the state now owning parts of society that were problematic, such as public
health & transport
-Crosland argued this blended public/private ownership made further nationalisation unnecessary
Social democracy: Keynesianism
-aka ‘managerial capitalism’, as it allows govts to steer a capitalist economy through adjustable tax rates, and other
forms of state intervention. This allowed growth, employment + removal of capitalism’s cyclical nature.
-more tax revenue eventually led to redistribution of wealth + increased public spending
Social Democracy: Welfarism
-Attlee’s government established the welfare state(network of public services that served to lessen poverty and inequality i.e the NHS, state education)
-social democrats wished to build on the welfare state + use the revenues to create a stable Keynesian economy
-Stagflation(high unemployment + inflation) in 1970s weakened faith in Keynesian economics, helping Thatcherism + NR conservatism rise
The Third Way: Neo-revisionism
-both Giddens’ Third Way and Crosland’s social democracy supported gradual socialism,opposed revolution, wanted higher public spending over state
ownership and saw Labour’s Clause IV (common ownership) as outdated
-the Third Way differed from social democracy due to changes:
•Soviet Union collapsed, so capitalism had no communist threat.
•globalisation made economies more unified, limiting govt control
•New Right policies (Thatcher & Reagan) weakened socialist ideas, while Labour kept losing elections
•working class declined, and society became more middle-class, shifting political priorities
The Third Way: Neo-revisionism
-both Giddens’ Third Way and Crosland’s social democracy supported gradual socialism,opposed revolution, wanted higher public spending over state
ownership and saw Labour’s Clause IV (common ownership) as outdated
-the Third Way differed from social democracy due to changes:
•Soviet Union collapsed, so capitalism had no communist threat.
•globalisation made economies more unified, limiting govt control
•New Right policies (Thatcher & Reagan) weakened socialist ideas, while Labour kept losing elections
•working class declined, and society became more middle-class, shifting political priorities (embourgeoisement)
The Third Way: Triangulation
-meant mixing social democracy’s values with New Right economics created the Third Way(aimed to achieve both social justice and economic efficiency by
balancing welfare policies with free
market principles)
The Third Way: Remixed economy
-The Third Way moved beyond Keynesian capitalism, which
assumed governments could control economies
-Giddens argued globalisation made this harder, so instead of resisting capitalism, the Third Way embraced free markets like the New Right—} more deregulation, public-private partnerships, and a “remixed economy” where the private sector played a bigger role in services like health and education
-goal was higher profits and tax revenues to fund public spending, as
shown by New Labour’s approach after 1997: “intensely relaxed about people getting filthy rich.. as long as they pay their taxes”(Mandelson)
The Third Way: Cultural equality
-Giddens noted society had become
more diverse, so New Labour introduced laws promoting racial, gender, and LGBTQ+ rights (i.e allowing same-sex
adoption and the Equality Act 2010). -While New Labour supported a multicultural society, it did not fully embrace multiculturalism, which actively promotes minority cultures
The Third Way: Communitarianism
-aimed to unite society by reducing racial divisions, not just promoting tolerance.
-he valued social cohesion and solidarity over pure individualism(like earlier socialists)
-individual freedom was important, but impossible without a harmonious society, who focus more on personal rights
The Third Way: Redistribution of political power
-wanted more ‘sharing’ of political power(emphasised diversity, inclusion + co-operation)
-New Labour promoted reforms like devolution, HOL reforms etc
Socialism today
-certain events in the 21sr century weakened capitalism i.e 2007-8 economic crash, problems in the Eurozone after 2012(countries like Greece had to increase austerity)—} strong socialist policies were implemented i.e nationalisation of banks by Brown’s 2007 govt
-Corbyn’s Labour party became the most popular party among voters aged 18-40(strong anti-capitalism campaign)
-increase in support for socialist senator Bernie Sanders + success of younger socialists in congress i.e AOC
-increased collective action + stress on society’s needs during COVID
-COVID sparked debates about poverty + inequality as lower classes suffered most
-‘class dealignment’: Johnson’s 2019 victory where conservatives were the most popular party among working class voters(red wall collapse)—} resulted in a more ‘Blue Labour’
