Ideologies: Liberalism Flashcards
What is liberalism?
-doctrine concerned with protecting + enhancing the freedom of individuals
-typically believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others BUT recognise that govt can pose a threat to liberty
Origins of Liberalism: the Reformation
-a religious movement in Europe during the late 15th + 16th centuries led by Martin Luther (founder of protestantism) who believed that christianity should assume a more individualistic character
-contributed to the idea of autonomy + people seeing themselves as unique individuals which led to challenging powerful bodies (i.e the Pope and catholic church)
-the violence that ruled the Reformation eventually encouraged liberals to advocate for more tolerance of diff religious views & ways of life
Origins of Liberalism: the Enlightenment
-intellectual movement that emerged in the 1600s —} defined by reason rather than religion, free thinking rather than blind faith and rational scrutiny rather than spirituality
-led to ideas like: every individual can think freely + an individual should determine their life by their own judgements
-contrast to autocratic government and monarchical rule
What were ideas like before the Reformation?
-it was assumed that the natural form of govt was autocratic(dominated by a single individual i.e monarch) who was appointed by God = divine right of kings —} suggested that a state should reflect God’s wishes and obedience was a religious duty
What was Locke’s mechanistic theory?
-human beings are rational and
can build a state that reflects
their needs
-rejected the ‘divine right of kings’
Key thinker: John Locke(1632-1704)
-wrote “Two Treatises of Government”
(1689) where he argued for
natural rights (life, liberty, property),
+ challenged the idea of absolute monarchy and supported the right to revolt against unjust rulers
-rejected the divine right of kings and the idea that ordinary people were ‘subjects’ of the state and argued that a ‘legitimate state’ was one created by mankind to serve mankind’s interests arising from a govt by consent
-believed that there was a natural society before the existence of the state that served mankind’s interests well(state of nature)
-the ‘state of law’(modern state) would be legitimate if it respected natural rights + laws and people had consented to the rulings in return for the state improving their situation (social contract theory)
-state would therefore be a limited govt restricted by pre-agreed rules and always requiring consent of the governed—} confirmed by the separation of powers that acts as an extra restraint
Key thinker: Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
-her primary claim in “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” was that the optimistic view of human nature as being guided by reason should apply to women as well as men
-believed that 18th century england reinforced the idea that women were not rational as they were rarely allowed land ownership or paid employment and couldn’t vote(violated govt by consent)
-‘fettering female individualism’ prevented “conditions where reason and progress may prosper”
-agreed with the American Revolution in the French Revolution alongside classical liberal thinkers(attacked Burke’s critique in ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Men’)—} liked that the French were indifferent to gender by use of the word ‘citizens’
-supported a republican govt that would enhance formal equality + a constitution that protected individual rights
-argued that women were complicit in their subjugation as they generally only desired marriage + motherhood—} formal education being made available to as many people as possible would allow them to realise their individual potential
-“It is vain to expect virtue from women till they are in some degree independent of men.”
-“The education which women now receive scarcely deserves the name..”
Key thinker: John Stuart Mill (1806-73)
-his ideas were the bridge between classical liberalism and modern liberalism = ‘transitional liberalism’
-wrote ‘On Liberty’ (1859) – and introduced idea of negative freedom (freedom mainly involved an absence of restraint) + the harm principle, arguing that people should be free to act as they wish unless they harm others
-interpreted tolerance as self-regarding actions (religious worship or personal views which should be protected) AND other regarding actions (violent behaviour that harmed the freedom of others should be forbidden in a liberal state)
-diversity of opinions was important to him—} new ideas could emerge + bad ideas could be ridiculed
-transcended classical liberalism as he thought liberty was not just natural rights but the engine of development (humans were a work in progress)
-interpreted individualism as wanting to see what individuals could become rather than just liberating them (developmental individualism)
-feared that govt by consent could be compromised if the interests of some were denied by the votes of the uneducated leading to ‘tyranny of the majority’
Key thinker: T.H Green(1836-82)
-seen as one of the founding fathers of modern liberalism + is linked to the concept of positive liberty (involved individuals ‘enabling’ other individuals, thus allowing them to freedom to pursue fulfilment)
-rejected the classical liberal view that society was composed of egotistical individuals—} believed human beings were motivated by a desire to promote the common good
-said that personal happiness came from attending to the happiness of others as well as self-indulgence and gratification
-wrote “Lectures on the Principles of
Political Obligation” (1885) where he discussed the relationship between
individuals and the state, emphasising the state’s role in promoting moral progress and the common good
-wanted the state to promote the widest possible degree of choice + opportunity for all
-countered being called a socialist as he argued that the state should still
prioritise personal liberty + individuals should be encouraged to be self interest but there was a social dimension to happiness too(provided philosophical justification for David Lloyd George - liberal politician who wished to expand state’s responsibilities)
Key thinker: John Rawls(1921-2002)
-wrote ‘A theory of Justice’ (1971) which focused on the ideas:
• ‘foundational equality’ = equality socially and economically as well as in law(so all people’s lives could be
fulfilled)—} provided by an enabling state (redistribution of wealth via extensive public spending and progressive taxation)
•a thought experiment: first condition = Individuals constructed a ‘society’ superior to their current one(original position), second condition = veil of ignorance was introduced where individuals wouldn’t know the sort of people they were in this new society
-argued that rational individuals would choose a ‘fairer society’ with reduced inequalities, state welfare, and taxation(consistent with govt by consent idea)
-remained distinct from socialism as he said people could support the poorest and still believe in a meritocracy(equality of opportunity NOT outcome)
Key thinker: Betty Friedan(1921-2006)
-wrote ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963) –
challenged the idea that women
could only find fulfillment in
domestic life + exposed the
dissatisfaction many women felt in
their traditional roles which helped
ignite the second wave of feminism
-believed that all individuals should
seek self-determination but saw gender as a hindrance to women’s freedom
-thought illiberal attitudes
condemned most women to underachievement and these were nurtured by society i.e media, literature etc—} cultural conditioning left women
convinced that laws overrode their rationality and enterprise
-she disdained violence or illegality and believed in using a liberal state to realise change
-rejected the Marxist-feminist argument that the state was dominated by ‘patriarchal’ corporations + instead favoured liberal constitutionalism
Liberal view on human nature: egotistical
-argued that each human being is unique + endowed with ‘natural’ rights – right to life, liberty, self- fulfilment
-egotistical individualism – humans are naturally drawn to
their own advancement (self-interest) which doesn’t have to lead to insensitivity towards others—} self-realisation(discovery of ‘true’ self), self-determination(masters of our own fate) and self-fulfilment(making the most of unique talents)
-when these freedoms are denied, human beings (including
women) are left demoralised, de energised and with the sense of a wasted life - women were “trapped by an obligation to surrender their own dreams..” in post-war America according to Friedman in ‘The Feminine Mystique’
Liberal view on human nature: Rational
-according to Locke and Mill, humans may be egotistical but they are also rational and so respect others
-guided by reason and logic rather than emotion and impulse
-allows us to ensure selfishness doesn’t lead to disrespect for others
-so humans are self-interested but also thoughtful, empathetic and compromising
Liberal view on human nature: Progressive
-human nature is constantly progressing and developing (developmental individualism – Mill
wished to focus on what individuals could become via education)
- It is closely linked to ‘utilitarianism’ – a doctrine by Jeremy Bentham who said humans are guided by the desire for pleasure not pain
- Mill – ‘better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’ meaning utilitarianism had a place but it must be grounded in the larger sense
Liberal view on human nature: Optimistic
-optimistic about the human
condition (like Socialists)
-reject the idea of ‘original sin’—}contrasts with Conservatism
-instead argues that human nature has the capacity to increase human happiness via rational discussion + informed debate i.e Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign slogan ‘Yes, we can!’
View of society: ‘natural’ society
-owing to their belief that human nature is respectful and decent, they argue that society predates the state—} hence Locke’s ‘state of nature’ – due to human’s rational nature, life before a state was one of natural rights (property and life) and laws and justice
-disagree with Hobbes’ view that life before state was ‘’nasty, brutish and short’
Liberal view of society: Individualist society
-due to the liberal view that humans can
be ‘egotistical’, society must ensure a maximum number of individuals can
pursue self-realisation and determination
-Mill emphasised that politicians were there to create the conditions for an individualistic society
-Wollstonecraft stressed that society should benefit both men and women by protecting ‘natural rights’ that were often withheld from women in the 18th century
-echoed by Friedan who asserted that the patriarchal society conflicted with women’s quest for self-determination
-liberal thinkers apply this to all individuals, including those in a minority e.g. women(Wollstonecraft:Friedan), religious nonconformists(Locke), LGBTQ+, BAME—} keen to protect against what Mill termed ‘dull conformity’ and ‘suffocating convention’
Liberal view of society: the tolerant society
-‘I disapprove of what you say, but I will
defend to the death your right to say it’ — French philosopher Voltaire
-the state should tolerate all actions
and opinions unless they violate the
‘harm principle’ (other’s liberties)
-individuals do not necessarily seek
tolerance in isolation, but thinkers like TH Green accept that individuals will be drawn to/rely on from communities or society as a whole
-can be problematic but the idea of
educating and reconciling individual
interests with societal interests is
important
Liberal view of the economy: Defence of private economy
-economic liberalism is based on the private ownership of property - Locke emphasised that property is a ‘natural right’ which predates the existence of any state
-Mill also argued that property facilitated individualism + provides a sense of independence
-see property as crucial vehicle for self-realisation + determinism
-protections against overbearing rulers
Liberal view of the economy: defence of capitalism and inequality
-strongly associated with private enterprise + private ownership of the economy
-strongly links to its upbeat view of human nature —} align with Adam Smith’s optimistic view that if individuals were allowed to trade freely, the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces would enrich people’s lives
-although capitalism produces inequality of outcome, individual wealth + success will trickle down to majority in society and an individualistic approach results in a meritocracy that is effective as it is paired with equality of opportunity as Rawls suggested as opposed to inequality of outcome
Liberal view of the state: Rejection of anarchism
-believe that self-realisation, self-determination and self-fulfilment are all best served by the existence of a state BUT still emphasise Locke’s ‘natural rights’ that predate the state
Liberal view of the state: the contractual state
-Locke insisted on a ‘govt by consent’ where the state’s legitimacy comes from its ‘citizens’ agreeing to be under its jurisdiction: “government should always be the servant, not master, of the people” (Locke)
-if advantages of social contract stop, citizens are entitled to declare the state illegitimate and cancel the ‘contract’: “it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it” (American Declaration of Independence)
Liberal view of the state: promotion of natural rights
-main objective is to improve upon rights that individuals enjoyed in the state of nature i.e right to life, liberty + property
-Rawls endorsed the idea that liberalism is ‘state-sponsored individualism” as opposed to stateless individualism that anarchists like Stirner wanted
-liberal state would offer faster + fairer methods of resolution in clashes within state of nature i.e impartial courts
Liberal view of the state: equal opportunities + unequal outcomes
-state should have capacity to provide everyone with equal opportunities for self-fulfilment—} TH Green + Rawls argued that the liberal state must evolve to counter new threats to individual liberty
-Rawls suggested that inequality of outcome is the inevitable + desirable consequence of individual diversity under a meritocratic society
Liberal view of the state: Promotion of tolerance
-liberal state aims to promote tolerance through its laws + institutions i.e making forms of intolerance illegal—} Friedan said the date should illegalise racial + sexual discrimination
-classical liberals like Mill claimed that education was a vital way in which greater tolerance could be encouraged
-‘modern liberals’ like TH Green argued that only the state could ensure the universal education required by a tolerance society
-Friedan believed that a more tolerant society could be embedded by bureaucratic agencies i.e UK’s Equality + Human Rights Commission
View of the state: constitutional/‘limited’ state
-state’s power should be limited by the preconditions of govt(terms of consent in the social contract) and the procedures + methods of govt(rationally agreed on between state + citizens)
-conditions should be enshrined in a constitution i.e American Constitution
-believe in foundational equality = all individuals are born equal + entitled to equal treatment by the state i.e ‘rule of law’
Liberal view of the state: A fragmented state
-Locke had the view that the state’s power should be ‘fragmented and scattered’ was a reaction to pre-Enlightenment when power was concentrated in the monarchy
-reflects their optimistic view of human nature—} should empower as many people as possible if they are rational + respectful
-wary of parliamentary sovereignty as they fear it could lead to the legitimation of ‘illiberal ideas’
How is power dispersed in the US constitution?
-formal separation of powers between the 3 branches
-bicameral legislature
-BOR that overrides policies of govt
-Supreme Court that can rule laws unconstitutional
-federal state where some functions are delegated to regional govts
Is liberal democracy a contradiction in terms?
Yes :
-democracy being guided by majorities threatens individuals with minority views + characteristics
-Mill thought votes should only be given to those with appropriate education
-natural rights theory implies that certain principles are non-negotiable, regardless of election results
No :
-endorses ‘govt by consent’ which democracy facilitates
-Mill thought democracy would have an ‘educative’ effect upon voters + would aid developmental individualism
-liberalism dislikes the concentration of political power, which democracy helps avoid
Origins of classical liberalism
-comprises of thinkers like Locke
Origins of classical liberalism
-comprises of thinkers like Locke, Wollstonecraft + Mill alongside influences from the Enlightenment era
-dominated until the late 19th century and was revived + updated by neo-liberals i.e Von Hayek
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: revolutionary implications
-Locke’s belief in govt by consent rejected the twin pilllars of the divine right of kings and monarchical absolutism
-he became associated with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 + the establishment of constitutional govt in England AND helped inspire American revolt in 1775 due to belief in natural rights
-rationalism + idea that humans were guided by reason proved central to the French Revolution of 1789
-Wollstonecraft went against societal norms with her idea that women had the same natural rights as men and their reason + liberty were being limited
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: Negative liberty
-reflects Mill’s view that freedom means individuals being left alone to determine their own destiny
-he argued that there should be no interference of people’s actions unless it ‘harmed’ others
-links with Locke’s view that society was self-interested and made of self-sufficient individuals
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: Minimal govt
-according to Locke + Mill, govts should be limited in terms of how they act AND whether they should act —} “the govt which governs best is that which governs least”
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: laissez-faire capitalism
-belief in minimal govt shaped their support of laissez-faire capitalism
-Mill commended Adam Smith’s idea that capitalism had a limitless capacity to enrich individuals + society as long as state intervention was restricted
-Smith advocacy es the end of tarrifs + other forms of economic protectionism as well as the spread of free trade
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: Ambivalent about democracy
-Both Locke and the Founding fathers though that universal suffrage which empowered the majority, threatened the ‘natural’ property owner rights of a
minority
-Mill did argue for people getting political education as it would enhance everyone’s capacity for reason BUT the fact that most adults had no formal education in the mid-19th century so were ill-equipped to make rational choices —} still has standing today i.e liberal Remainers observed that a small minority of uni graduates were Leavers
Origins of Modern liberalism
-emerged in the late 19th century + key thinkers include TH Green, Friedan + Rawls
-linked to PM David Lloyd George + inquiries like the Beveridge report as well as economist Keynes
-in response to the industrial revolution of the 18th + 19th centuries, individuals faced social + economic enemies according to Green so were not concerned with seeking fulfilment in ‘atomised’ societies like Locke suggested
Modern Liberalism in the 20th century
-Liberal govt led by Asquith + his chancellor Lloyd George made the ‘People’s Budget’ of 1908, introducing state pension that was funded by increased tax of property owners
-Keynes argued that the state must constantly ‘steer’ the economy towards max employment—} shaped Roosevelt’s New Deal in response to the Great Depression
-Beverige report outlined the ‘five giants’ of ‘disease, ignorance, want, idleness and squalor’ which helped create the post-war welfare state
MODERN LIBERALISM: positive liberty
-Green took inspiration from Mill’s negative liberty + argued that freedom should include people ‘enabling’ each other to pursue fulfilment
-also advocated for ‘positive liberty’ - empowering individuals to help themselves, allowing them to control their lives more than if they would’ve been left alone
MODERN LIBERALISM: the enabling state
-demand a much larger state than classical liberalism to facilitate positive liberty
-Rawls argue that individual liberty requires more laws, state spending and more tax—} strongly liked to UK welfare state
-large state facilitated equality of opportunity necessary for individual freedom
-claimed enabling state is compatible with govt by consent as taxation was consisted with their self interest
Enabling state in action
-Biden’s healthcare reforms in 2021 built upon Obamacare: capping any price increases by healthcare providers, lowering the age of eligibility for state-sponsored health care
Tolerance in action
-Lib Dem manifesto called for a ‘more tolerant Britain’ i.e compulsory gender neutral school uniform for state schools, greater wheelchair access in public transport stations
MODERN LIBERALISM: Keynesian capitalism
-supports greater state intervention in a market economy—} Keynes argued that self-fulfilment + liberty were seriously endangered by joblessness + resulting poverty
-believed in state management of capitalism as it ensures economic stability
-Rawls saw it as crucial to overcome the ‘5 giants’
MODERN LIBERALISM: Liberal Democracy
-Green suggested “if the state is to do more for its people, then the state must do more to secure their consent” (positive liberty + enabling state required universal suffrage)
-David Lloyd George oversaw the enfranchisement for women in 1918 + recent Liberal parties have campaigned for voting age to be 16
-BUT modern liberalism firmly supported remaining in the EU despite undemocratic nature of European Commission
Liberal democracy in action
-ALDE is a group that brings liberal-minded politicians in the EU + European parliament together
-calls upon the EU to respect + promote personal freedom + self fulfilment AND promote the protection of minorities regardless of ethnic background, gender etc
Has modern liberals abandoned the principles of classical liberalism?
Yes :
-classical liberalism centred around negative freedoms whereas modern liberals focus on positive freedom
-classical liberals wanted an enlarged state whereas modern liberals prefer an enlarged state
-classical liberals favours laissez faire capitalism whereas modern liberals favour Keynesian capitalism
No :
-both have an optimistic view of human nature
-both believe in a constitutional/limited state + govt by consent
-both see individualism as the ‘end goal’ of politics + society
MODERN LIBERALISM: social liberalism
-make efforts to update the classical liberals stress on tolerance
-Friedan protested that too many individuals in modern society were denied equality of opportunity due to ethnicity, gender + sexual orientation
-she argued that solving this required forms of ‘affirmative action’ aka positive discrimination i.e USA’s Equal employment opportunity commission that take affirmative action into account in hiring employees
Do liberals have a consistent view of the state?
Yes :
-consistently believe in a govt by consent + social contract
-believe in limited govt
-reject state where power is concentrated
No :
-not consistently upheld foundational equality: slow to adopt principles of democracy + universal suffrage
-not consistent with govt by consent —} allows wishes of majority to be defied via checks + balances
-not consistently minimal i.e advocate for state intervention in the name of positive liberty
Liberalism today
-New Labour embraced economic liberalism(defended privatisation) + Cameron embraced social liberalism i.e legalising gay marriage
-liberal democracies were obliged to restrict individualism i.e heightened state surveillance post 9/11
-socialists criticised liberal economy due to 2008 financial crash
-strong concern for minority rights i.e BLM protests
-criticism of ‘tyranny of the majority’ i.e ‘political correctness’ + ‘cancel culture’ as well as populist campaigns like Trump
-COVID restricted individual liberty i.e lockdown laws BUT people were inclined to give their consent to the state
