Ideologies: Conservatism Flashcards
What is conservatism as an ideology?
-conservatism is NOT about avoiding change at all costs, more about ‘changing to conserve’(it is durable + open to reform)
-sees change as inevitable but wants draw upon concepts like tradition, experience + continuity
-“A state without the means of change… is without the means of its conservation”-Burke
-Oakeshott described it as a “doctrine of maintenance”- repair + development, not demolition
What is the difference between big C and small c conservatism?
-Conservatives as a party are ideologically eclectic= uses multiple theories i.e they advocate for traditional conservatism as well as some ideas from classical liberalism
-seen in the mid-late 20th century Conservative party that took on some ideas from Liberal politicians i.e individual freedom + free-market economics
-not all conservatives are Conservative–} more Labour Party members wanted to resist changing membership of the EU more than conservative members
What was the enlightenment era and what was its relationship to conservatism?
-the enlightenment was an intellectual movement of the 17th + 18th centuries
-belief in reason over faith, challenged the idea that rulers were chosen by God + suggested that humans were endowed with logic and free will—} ‘age of reason’
-conservatism’s relationship with the era was complicated and nuanced:
-Wollstonecraft/Crosland argument that conservatism is a reactionary doctrine + was against the era
What was the Hobbesian view on the enlightenment era?
-Hobbes was in favour of concentrated political power however he was also noted for his attempts to apply reason + logic(enlightenment principles) to maths and physics
-he concluded that the divine right of kings had an intellectually flimsy basis for modern govt—} wanted a ‘govt by consent’(authority of govt rests with the governed rather than monarch/God)
-insisted upon a ‘social contract’ as the basis of any rational state(govts were only legitimate if they served the interests of the governed)
-maintained the idea that replacement of traditional govt must be quick to guarantee public safety: “without such guarantees..notions such as ‘liberty’, ‘tolerance’ and ‘reason’ are illusory and unsustainable
What was the Burkean view on the enlightenment era?
-he was seen as progressive and insisted that ‘Man is by nature reasonable’
-denounced ‘abstract’ notions like equality in favour of an aristocratic privilege
-believed that progress required not just a passion for improvement but also a respect for tradition + experience—} supported the American revolution + saw it as an example of ‘changing to
conserve’
-“ a state without the means of some change… is without the means of its conservation”
-defended constitutional govt and free-market capitalism
Explain the impact of the French revolution on how the enlightenment era was perceived
-was first seen as the embodiment of the enlightenment era
-after the execution of Louis XVI in the late 1700s and the terror that followed, people saw the methods of enlightenment as genocide
Key thinkers: Thomas Hobbes
-witnessed the destruction of the English civil war(1642-1651) between Parliamentarians and Royalists, which heavily influenced his advocacy for governance by an absolute sovereign in Leviathan(1651)
-in this, he took a sceptical view of human nature arguing that it was ruthlessly egotistical and likely to commit cruel + destructive acts
-suggested that prior to the emergence of a state, there was no co-operation or voluntary arrangements, so no ‘natural rights’ that the liberals suggested: “covenants without swords are but words”
-human nature was shaped by a distrust in others and a constant fear of death–} life would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’
-‘natural chaos’ stemmed from the absence of formal authority and uncertainty and war would be inevitable
-believed in a ‘social contract’ where individuals would render to the state the right to make laws which restrained everyone and allow the order + security that were absent in the state of nature
-power must be concentrated for state to accomplish social contract–} would lead to creation of order and security
More on Leviathan(1651)
-metaphor for the state
-artificial person whose body is made up of all the bodies of it citizens
-represents the head of the sovereign
-Leviathan is constructed through contract by people in order to escape the horrors of this natural condition
-power of Leviathan protects them from the abuses of one another: “during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war, and such war as is of every man against every man”
-must accept government to avoid “that which is destructive of life”
Overview of Hobbes’ beliefs
-human nature: cynical, humans are selfish + driven by supremacy and security
-state: power must be concentrated, arises ‘contractually’ from individuals seeking order + security
-society: creation comes from creation of a state to create order first
-economy: only possible if a state guarantees order + security
Key thinkers: Edmund Burke
-supported many progressive causes i.e American Revolution, he defended Irish tenants against extortionate landlords and spoke out against cruelty of Hindustanis
-considered the father of conservatism
-critiqued the Enlightenment era= stressed mankind’s fallibility + its tendency to fail more than succeed, claimed the French revolution was based on a utopian(unrealistic) view of human nature
-change should be based on fact and experience as opposed to ‘philosophical abstraction’ and being “so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors”
-believed that society + state were based on slow, evolutionary change + didn’t agree with how French revolution discarded history + tradition: “liberty must be limited in order to be possessed”
-ruling class was inevitable in all ‘organic societies’ but they has an obligation to govern in the best interests of all(disagreed with French stress on equality)
-liked idea of a society of ‘little platoons’: multitude of small, diverse + largely autonomous individuals, which would “acknowledge, nurture and prune.. the crooked timber of humanity”
-saw society as “but a contract between the dead, the living and those yet to be born”
Overview of Burke’s beliefs
-human nature: sceptical, the ‘crooked timber of humanity’ marks a gap between what we want to achieve and what we can achieve
-state: should be constitutionally driven by an aristocratic elite to rule in the interests of all (Burkean model of representation)
-society: organic, comprising a host of small communities(‘little platoons’) which check the power of the state
-economy= trade should be organic, markets should be free, laissez-faire capitalism
How did Hobbes and Burke differ
on human nature?
-Hobbes’ view on human nature aligns more with Liberalism whereas Burke is considered the ‘father of Conservatism’
-similar in their belief of ‘human
imperfection’ – both believed humans to be fallible
-BUT Burke didn’t believe humans to be
fundamental terrible but in fact capable of kindness and wisdom so long as they were guided by tradition and Christianity
-didn’t share Hobbes’ view that humans were ruthlessly individualistic but that humans were naturally communal and gained comfort from ‘little platoons’
Key thinker: Michael Oakeshott
-renowned for bringing a fresh perspective to the themes of transitional conservatism in the 20th century: his text ‘On Being Conservative (1962) is remembered for its argument that a ‘philosophy of imperfection’ need not be a ‘philosophy of pessimism’
-believed that conservatism was ‘more psychology than ideology’ which sowed “an instinctive preference for what is known, an innate fear of the uncertain”
-humans were ‘fallible but not terrible’ and ‘imperfect but not immoral’
-though incapable of ‘perfect’ societies, humans were able to secure “both pleasure and improvement through the humdrum business of everyday life”
-human nature was “benign & benevolent when framed by routine, familiarity & religious
principles” – a rejection of Hobbes’ view on human brutality
-argued that ideologies like liberalism and socialism, with their clear views of how society ‘should’ be, simply led to impatience, intolerance + frustration
-should instead focus on the pleasures that exist in life i.e families + friends
-appreciated empirical + pragmatic approach—} argued that it was experience, trial + error rather than abstract philosophy that wisdom was achieved
-argued that the stage existed to “prevent the bad rather than create the good”
-made a nautical metaphor the job of govt is to “keep the ship afloat at all costs”
What was Oakeshott’s theory on the ‘art of the possible’?
-must ensure that the “cure is not worse than the disease”
-“ to provide the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the trade to the untried… the actual to the possible”
-in ‘Rationalism in Politics’, he argued that effective governance relies on “traditional knowledge” (customs, traditions) rather than “technical knowledge” (abstract theories)
-critiques utopianism and sees politicos as more about managing the existing order—} “ a known good is not likely to be surrendered for an unknown better”
What did Oakeshott’s critics argue?
-conservative critics on the New Right, claim his philosophy is too fatalistic + underestimates our ability to shape circumstances
- to New Right thinkers like Nozick, the ‘Oakeshott mentality’ was ‘lazy’ and allowed socialist ideas to advance unchallenged after 1945(welfare state)
Overview of Oakeshott’s beliefs
-human nature:humanity is mainly good, but imperfect. Routine
helps to establish greater appreciation of life
-state: pragmatic, state should be guided by tradition. Goal is to
prevent the bad, not establish the good
-Society: localised communities essential to humanity’s survival
-economy: free markets are volatile and unpredictable; they may
require pragmatic moderation by the state
What was the New Right perspective?
-had neo-liberal dimensions + key thinkers like Rand and Nozick stressed human yearning for individual freedom, autonomy and self-determination
-quote from Rand’s novel The fountainhead (1943): “ I recognise no obligation towards men except one: to respect their freedom”
-New right echoed Hobbes by emphasising “our restless quest for self-betterment”(Nozick)
-believed egotism inspired a vibrant capitalist economy + the enrichment of society unlike Hobbes who saw it as likely to produce conflict
More on New Right neo-liberalism
-introduced a strong emphasis on ideological conviction + principle(more theoretical than traditional conservatism
-advocates for the unconstrained freedom to acquire property + wealth and stresses free enterprise
-View private property as a natural right
Key thinker: Ayn Rand
-wrote Atlas Shrugged(1947) which stated that talented individuals, rather than ambitious govts, lay at the heart of any successful society
-believed in ‘objectivism’ - we should all be guided by self-interest and ‘rational self-fulfilment’
-believed in ‘atomism’ - a society defined by millions of autonomous individuals, each independently seeking self-fulfilment + self-realisation
-her views are consistent with classical liberalism and neo-liberalism (emphasises individual liberty + minimal state interference)
-strongly support for a laissez-faire brand of capitalism + its renewal of ‘negative liberty’ which is a justification of “rolling back the frontiers of the state” via policies such as tax cuts + privatisation
-defended an individual’s ’right to choose’ i.e homosexuality + abortion
-stated that liberty was impossible without order + security, which only a state could provide
Overview of Rand’s beliefs
-human nature – objectivists. Humans are controlled by self-interest
-state – minimal/small state to provide law and order (the small state
is the strong state). State intervention should be resisted
-society – society is atomistic
-economy – free market economics is an expression of individualism and should not be hindered by the state
Key thinker: Robert Nozick
-His key work, ‘Anarchy, State and
Utopia’ is a reference for modern
conservative philosophy
-argued that growth of the govt was the gravest threat to individual freedom—} thought welfare states fostered a ‘dependency system’
-optimistic view of human nature: individuals have self-ownership, can make choices based on their own values and interests without intervention from govt i.e believed that taxation is “legalised theft” and “on par with forced labour”
-did believe in some formal authority enforcing laws so the preservation of life, liberty and property ‘could not be taken for granted’
-had some minarchist values(private companies rather than public services)
that opted for self-sufficient communities to extend individual freedom: “individuals have rights and there are things no person or no group may do to them”(updated version of little platoons)
Overview of Nozick’s beliefs
-human nature – individuals driven by a quest for “self-ownership” which
allows them to reach their full potential.
-state – minimal/small state to provide law and order (the small state is the
strong state). State intervention should be resisted. Miniarchist state;
outsource as much as you can to private companies
-society – minimal state; society is geared to individuals.
-economy – free market economics is an expression of individualism and
should not be hindered by the stat
What is meant by state of nature?
-the real or hypothetical conditions of human beings before or without political association
Traditional conservative view of human nature: fixed + flawed
-rejects the malleable view of human nature offered by socialists + liberals i.e Mill who spoke of ‘man as a progressive being’
-stress human frailty + human imperfection
-denies that humanity can be positively reshaped within the ‘correct’ environment
-Oakeshott has described the conservative view of human nature as a ‘philosophy of imperfection’