Ideologies: Conservatism Flashcards
What is conservatism as an ideology?
-conservatism is NOT about avoiding change at all costs, more about ‘changing to conserve’(it is durable + open to reform)
-sees change as inevitable but wants draw upon concepts like tradition, experience + continuity
-“A state without the means of change… is without the means of its conservation”-Burke
-Oakeshott described it as a “doctrine of maintenance”- repair + development, not demolition
What is the difference between big C and small c conservatism?
-Conservatives as a party are ideologically eclectic= uses multiple theories i.e they advocate for traditional conservatism as well as some ideas from classical liberalism
-seen in the mid-late 20th century Conservative party that took on some ideas from Liberal politicians i.e individual freedom + free-market economics
-not all conservatives are Conservative–} more Labour Party members wanted to resist changing membership of the EU more than conservative members
What was the enlightenment era and what was its relationship to conservatism?
-the enlightenment was an intellectual movement of the 17th + 18th centuries
-belief in reason over faith, challenged the idea that rulers were chosen by God + suggested that humans were endowed with logic and free will—} ‘age of reason’
-conservatism’s relationship with the era was complicated and nuanced:
-Wollstonecraft/Crosland argument that conservatism is a reactionary doctrine + was against the era
What was the Hobbesian view on the enlightenment era?
-Hobbes was in favour of concentrated political power however he was also noted for his attempts to apply reason + logic(enlightenment principles) to maths and physics
-he concluded that the divine right of kings had an intellectually flimsy basis for modern govt—} wanted a ‘govt by consent’(authority of govt rests with the governed rather than monarch/God)
-insisted upon a ‘social contract’ as the basis of any rational state(govts were only legitimate if they served the interests of the governed)
-maintained the idea that replacement of traditional govt must be quick to guarantee public safety: “without such guarantees..notions such as ‘liberty’, ‘tolerance’ and ‘reason’ are illusory and unsustainable
What was the Burkean view on the enlightenment era?
-he was seen as progressive and insisted that ‘Man is by nature reasonable’
-denounced ‘abstract’ notions like equality in favour of an aristocratic privilege
-believed that progress required not just a passion for improvement but also a respect for tradition + experience—} supported the American revolution + saw it as an example of ‘changing to
conserve’
-“ a state without the means of some change… is without the means of its conservation”
-defended constitutional govt and free-market capitalism
Explain the impact of the French revolution on how the enlightenment era was perceived
-was first seen as the embodiment of the enlightenment era
-after the execution of Louis XVI in the late 1700s and the terror that followed, people saw the methods of enlightenment as genocide
Key thinkers: Thomas Hobbes
-witnessed the destruction of the English civil war(1642-1651) between Parliamentarians and Royalists, which heavily influenced his advocacy for governance by an absolute sovereign in Leviathan(1651)
-in this, he took a sceptical view of human nature arguing that it was ruthlessly egotistical and likely to commit cruel + destructive acts
-suggested that prior to the emergence of a state, there was no co-operation or voluntary arrangements, so no ‘natural rights’ that the liberals suggested: “covenants without swords are but words”
-human nature was shaped by a distrust in others and a constant fear of death–} life would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’
-‘natural chaos’ stemmed from the absence of formal authority and uncertainty and war would be inevitable
-believed in a ‘social contract’ where individuals would render to the state the right to make laws which restrained everyone and allow the order + security that were absent in the state of nature
-power must be concentrated for state to accomplish social contract–} would lead to creation of order and security
More on Leviathan(1651)
-metaphor for the state
-artificial person whose body is made up of all the bodies of it citizens
-represents the head of the sovereign
-Leviathan is constructed through contract by people in order to escape the horrors of this natural condition
-power of Leviathan protects them from the abuses of one another: “during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war, and such war as is of every man against every man”
-must accept government to avoid “that which is destructive of life”
Overview of Hobbes’ beliefs
-human nature: cynical, humans are selfish + driven by supremacy and security
-state: power must be concentrated, arises ‘contractually’ from individuals seeking order + security
-society: creation comes from creation of a state to create order first
-economy: only possible if a state guarantees order + security
Key thinkers: Edmund Burke
-supported many progressive causes i.e American Revolution, he defended Irish tenants against extortionate landlords and spoke out against cruelty of Hindustanis
-considered the father of conservatism
-critiqued the Enlightenment era= stressed mankind’s fallibility + its tendency to fail more than succeed, claimed the French revolution was based on a utopian(unrealistic) view of human nature
-change should be based on fact and experience as opposed to ‘philosophical abstraction’ and being “so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors”
-believed that society + state were based on slow, evolutionary change + didn’t agree with how French revolution discarded history + tradition: “liberty must be limited in order to be possessed”
-ruling class was inevitable in all ‘organic societies’ but they has an obligation to govern in the best interests of all(disagreed with French stress on equality)
-liked idea of a society of ‘little platoons’: multitude of small, diverse + largely autonomous individuals, which would “acknowledge, nurture and prune.. the crooked timber of humanity”
-saw society as “but a contract between the dead, the living and those yet to be born”
Overview of Burke’s beliefs
-human nature: sceptical, the ‘crooked timber of humanity’ marks a gap between what we want to achieve and what we can achieve
-state: should be constitutionally driven by an aristocratic elite to rule in the interests of all (Burkean model of representation)
-society: organic, comprising a host of small communities(‘little platoons’) which check the power of the state
-economy= trade should be organic, markets should be free, laissez-faire capitalism
How did Hobbes and Burke differ
on human nature?
-Hobbes’ view on human nature aligns more with Liberalism whereas Burke is considered the ‘father of Conservatism’
-similar in their belief of ‘human
imperfection’ – both believed humans to be fallible
-BUT Burke didn’t believe humans to be
fundamental terrible but in fact capable of kindness and wisdom so long as they were guided by tradition and Christianity
-didn’t share Hobbes’ view that humans were ruthlessly individualistic but that humans were naturally communal and gained comfort from ‘little platoons’
Key thinker: Michael Oakeshott
-renowned for bringing a fresh perspective to the themes of transitional conservatism in the 20th century: his text ‘On Being Conservative (1962) is remembered for its argument that a ‘philosophy of imperfection’ need not be a ‘philosophy of pessimism’
-believed that conservatism was ‘more psychology than ideology’ which sowed “an instinctive preference for what is known, an innate fear of the uncertain”
-humans were ‘fallible but not terrible’ and ‘imperfect but not immoral’
-though incapable of ‘perfect’ societies, humans were able to secure “both pleasure and improvement through the humdrum business of everyday life”
-human nature was “benign & benevolent when framed by routine, familiarity & religious
principles” – a rejection of Hobbes’ view on human brutality
-argued that ideologies like liberalism and socialism, with their clear views of how society ‘should’ be, simply led to impatience, intolerance + frustration
-should instead focus on the pleasures that exist in life i.e families + friends
-appreciated empirical + pragmatic approach—} argued that it was experience, trial + error rather than abstract philosophy that wisdom was achieved
-argued that the stage existed to “prevent the bad rather than create the good”
-made a nautical metaphor the job of govt is to “keep the ship afloat at all costs”
What was Oakeshott’s theory on the ‘art of the possible’?
-must ensure that the “cure is not worse than the disease”
-“ to provide the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the trade to the untried… the actual to the possible”
-in ‘Rationalism in Politics’, he argued that effective governance relies on “traditional knowledge” (customs, traditions) rather than “technical knowledge” (abstract theories)
-critiques utopianism and sees politicos as more about managing the existing order—} “ a known good is not likely to be surrendered for an unknown better”
What did Oakeshott’s critics argue?
-conservative critics on the New Right, claim his philosophy is too fatalistic + underestimates our ability to shape circumstances
- to New Right thinkers like Nozick, the ‘Oakeshott mentality’ was ‘lazy’ and allowed socialist ideas to advance unchallenged after 1945(welfare state)
Overview of Oakeshott’s beliefs
-human nature:humanity is mainly good, but imperfect. Routine
helps to establish greater appreciation of life
-state: pragmatic, state should be guided by tradition. Goal is to
prevent the bad, not establish the good
-Society: localised communities essential to humanity’s survival
-economy: free markets are volatile and unpredictable; they may
require pragmatic moderation by the state
What was the New Right perspective?
-had neo-liberal dimensions + key thinkers like Rand and Nozick stressed human yearning for individual freedom, autonomy and self-determination
-quote from Rand’s novel The fountainhead (1943): “ I recognise no obligation towards men except one: to respect their freedom”
-New right echoed Hobbes by emphasising “our restless quest for self-betterment”(Nozick)
-believed egotism inspired a vibrant capitalist economy + the enrichment of society unlike Hobbes who saw it as likely to produce conflict
More on New Right neo-liberalism
-introduced a strong emphasis on ideological conviction + principle(more theoretical than traditional conservatism
-advocates for the unconstrained freedom to acquire property + wealth and stresses free enterprise
-View private property as a natural right
Key thinker: Ayn Rand
-wrote Atlas Shrugged(1947) which stated that talented individuals, rather than ambitious govts, lay at the heart of any successful society
-believed in ‘objectivism’ - we should all be guided by self-interest and ‘rational self-fulfilment’
-believed in ‘atomism’ - a society defined by millions of autonomous individuals, each independently seeking self-fulfilment + self-realisation
-her views are consistent with classical liberalism and neo-liberalism (emphasises individual liberty + minimal state interference)
-strongly support for a laissez-faire brand of capitalism + its renewal of ‘negative liberty’ which is a justification of “rolling back the frontiers of the state” via policies such as tax cuts + privatisation
-defended an individual’s ’right to choose’ i.e homosexuality + abortion
-stated that liberty was impossible without order + security, which only a state could provide
Overview of Rand’s beliefs
-human nature – objectivists. Humans are controlled by self-interest
-state – minimal/small state to provide law and order (the small state
is the strong state). State intervention should be resisted
-society – society is atomistic
-economy – free market economics is an expression of individualism and should not be hindered by the state
Key thinker: Robert Nozick
-His key work, ‘Anarchy, State and
Utopia’ is a reference for modern
conservative philosophy
-argued that growth of the govt was the gravest threat to individual freedom—} thought welfare states fostered a ‘dependency system’
-optimistic view of human nature: individuals have self-ownership, can make choices based on their own values and interests without intervention from govt i.e believed that taxation is “legalised theft” and “on par with forced labour”
-did believe in some formal authority enforcing laws so the preservation of life, liberty and property ‘could not be taken for granted’
-had some minarchist values(private companies rather than public services)
that opted for self-sufficient communities to extend individual freedom: “individuals have rights and there are things no person or no group may do to them”(updated version of little platoons)
Overview of Nozick’s beliefs
-human nature – individuals driven by a quest for “self-ownership” which
allows them to reach their full potential.
-state – minimal/small state to provide law and order (the small state is the
strong state). State intervention should be resisted. Miniarchist state;
outsource as much as you can to private companies
-society – minimal state; society is geared to individuals.
-economy – free market economics is an expression of individualism and
should not be hindered by the stat
What is meant by state of nature?
-the real or hypothetical conditions of human beings before or without political association
Traditional conservative view of human nature: fixed + flawed
-rejects the malleable view of human nature offered by socialists + liberals i.e Mill who spoke of ‘man as a progressive being’
-stress human frailty + human imperfection
-denies that humanity can be positively reshaped within the ‘correct’ environment
-Oakeshott has described the conservative view of human nature as a ‘philosophy of imperfection’
Traditional conservative view on human nature: cynical
-Hobbes had a pessimistic view on the ‘state of nature’, viewing it as ‘egotistical and ruthless’ in pursuit of self-interest
-he argued that where restraints of human conduct were absent, relationships were marked by ‘envy, hatred and violent conflict’
-BUT he believed the human condition would eventually be redeemed by our capacity for reason
-state of nature would eventually be seen as an obstacle to self-interest and fulfilment—} would lead to the establishing of a formal state to ensure order + security
Traditional conservative view on human nature: Sceptical
-Burke was dismissive of the utopianism that surrounded the French Revolution and said they were based on an implausibly upbeat view of human potential
-offered a sceptical view that advertised the ‘warts and foibles that mark each man’
-drawing on biblical principles of sin, he emphasised the ‘timeless chasm’ between human desire and achievement—} argued that because of our tendency to fall short, change should be slow + gradual
-we should use habit and experience to signpost how we behave(drawing on the good that has gone before in order to change + conserve)
Traditional conservative view on human nature: Forgiving
-unlike Hobbes + Burke, Oakeshott offered a more hopeful outlook on human nature: “fallible not terrible” and “imperfect not immoral”
-he argued that we are still capable of kindness, generosity and solidarity with others despite often failing to meet targets
-recent scholars therefore argue that conservatives take a tolerant view of human nature, recognising its faults but highlighting its redeemable features
-maybe more optimistic than socialist + liberal thinkers like Mill as they look at what human nature could be as a result of reform
-Oakeshott disagreed with Hobbes’ view that human nature was driven by brutally selfish rationalism—} he instead portrayed us as having a fondness for the communal pleasures of ‘family, friends, garden and games’
-argued that most people preferred “the familiar to the unknown.. the actual to the possible.. present laughter to utopian bliss”
Traditional conservative view of human nature: communal
-Burke and Oakeshott both rejected Hobbes’ view that human nature was mercilessly individualistic
-they insisted that human beings, were sociable creatures, drawn to the security of local communities + the ‘sense of belonging’ they provide
New Right view of human nature
• Nozick: -individualistic, people have capacity for reason and
self-ownership, no one should be forced
to live according to someone else’s vision: politics should be a “conversation not an argument”
-emphasises personal autonomy and importance of respecting each person’s rights
-humans are naturally capable of pursuing their own goals
•Rand:
-rational, self-interested, and capable of achieving greatness through individual effort
-humans are driven by reason and should pursue their own happiness as their highest moral purpose.
-rejects the idea that humans should sacrifice their own interests for the sake of others: “men are not equal in ability and once can’t treat them as if they were”
-self-reliance and personal responsibility are essential for thriving and individuals should have freedom to achieve their goals without interference: “..a government is the most dangerous threat to man’s rights..”
Difference between traditional and new right view on conservatism
• T: politics of imperfection dominates understanding of human nature, N: agree that human nature is imperfect,
but generally more optimistic – views human nature as rational
• T: develops need for order, stability and tradition as ideal that state should focus on - provide basis for human nature to flourish, N: similar view on order and tradition, less emphasis on big government in terms of economy
• develops sceptical view of politics –
pragmatism (what is) instead of abstract principles (what should be), N: state should focus on the development and
protection of a free market + pro-capitalist environment
•T: over-estimation of human
potential manifested in horrors of French Revolution, N: strong ideological approach to free market and
small state reflects principle over pragmatism
Traditional conservative view of society: rejection of ‘natural’ society
-both Hobbes and Burke saw ‘natural society’(idea of natural rights + laws) as dangerous fantasies and relied on law and order to make society possible(used French Revolution and English Civil war as examples of how notions like individual rights and private property disappear when law + order collapse)
-Hobbes: must accept government to avoid “that which is destructive of life”
Traditional conservative view of society: Localism
-Burke and Oakeshott see society as an assortment of local, voluntary and largely apolitical small communities - setting stone of ‘one nation’ ideology
-Oakeshott suggests that units i.e local churches are essential in ‘helping us help one another’
-Oakeshott explained “a strong society protects us from an over-mighty govt” by providing individuals with support so they don’t seek it from impersonal bureaucracies i.e David Cameron promising ‘big society and a small state’
Traditional conservative view of society: Organicism
-Burke and Oakeshott see society as something that can only emerge organically—} view society as less like a machine that responds to the levers pulled by human hands and more like a plant that naturally emerges + grows
-believe that human life is subject to forces beyond their reason (mankind cannot determine its own fate)
Traditional conservative view of society:
importance of tradition
-Burke described the best kind of society as a “partnership.. between those who are living, those who are dead and those yet to be born”
-thought that without ‘ancient opinions’ we have ‘no compass to govern us’
-we should guided by “that which is known”(Oakeshott), rather than abstract ideas
-Judeo-Christian morality: christianity was the best moral basis for society due to its stress on Original Sin, strong emphasis upon marriage, self-contained families and individuals, spiritual rewards of altruism and compassion bind together individuals
Traditional conservative view of society:
Paternalistic inequality
-defends inequality of outcome, seeking unequal power + wealth as natural and desirable
-Burke explained “the wiser, the more expert.. should enlighten and protect the weaker..”
-resembles ‘familial responsibility’ and without it existing society can overturn i.e French Revolution
Traditional conservative view of society:
Property
-stresses the value of private property but see it as less of a ‘natural right’(liberal view) and more of an example of Burke’s ‘partnership’ via inheritance
-property also provides a tangible basis for Burke’s little platoons i.e churches + schools
Traditional conservative view of society:
Empricism
-believe in evidence over theory
-deal with society’s issues in a practical, evidential way, Oakeshott said “what has stood the test of time is good and just not be lightly cast aside”
-contrasts with the normative view taken by liberals and socialists
-conservative society aims to ‘stay afloat in uncertain waters rather than ‘sail to a specific destination’
The New Right perspective on society
-Rand and Nozick take a more atomistic view of society: see it as a “kaleidoscope of autonomous individuals” (Rand) , “..only individual people, different individual people, with their own individual lives” (Nozick) rather than as collection of communities
-seemed to suggest they were in line with Thatcher’s idea that there was ‘no such thing’ as society
-seemed paternalism as ‘dependency culture’ and Rand suggested that a “surplus of obligation spawns a deficiency of innovation”—} strive for ‘enterprise culture’, which involves more self-reliance + self-determination
-also believe in tolerance of inequality but see society as meritocratic not aristocratic
-in line with neo-liberal view that property ownership was a symbol of self-realisation + determination rather than tradition
-supported social conservatism i.e stressed importance of heterosexual marriage + traditional family units—} similar to Thatcher who rewarded traditional marriage via increases in marriage tax allowance and prohibited schools from ‘promoting’ homosexuality in the Local Govt Act 1988
Traditional conservative view of the economy: capitalism’s ‘reluctant supporters’
-generally support capitalism and private enterprise as it leads to a level of material prosperity(needed for stable society)
-acknowledge that laissez-faire capitalism and damage society by amplifying inequality
-would reluctantly agree with marks that ‘raw’ capitalism is the enemy of continuity i.e Oakeshott complained that rural areas/villages were threatened by the ‘remorseless rhythms’ of market forces (relevant to those seeking to protect England’s green-belt areas from property developers or ancient woodlands from the HS2 project today)
Traditional conservative view of the economy: Keynesian economics
-support this more regulated + moderated form of economics: keynesian economics uses the ‘business cycle’ to argue that more govt intervention is needed during recessions and less govt intervention is needed during economic growth and boom (aligns with traditional conservatives’ desire to maintain social order)
-after WWII, many traditional conservatives, such as Harold Macmillan, accepted a compromise between free-market capitalism and socialist state ownership aka ‘the middle way’ —} should result in more spending on public services while preserving capitalism(protectionism)
More on Keynesian economics: The invisible hand
-describes how competition + self-interest acts as an invisible hand that regulates the free market
-3 key features:
• competition keeps prices low
• competition keeps quality high
• profit-seeking producers will make more
The New Right perspective on the economy
-New Right thinkers like Nozick have a more sympathetic view of free-market economies
-during the 80’s free market capitalism was dubbed ‘Thatcherism’ or ‘Reaganomics’, due to the policies they created —} led to NR economics being linked to the privatisation of state-
owned industries, and a more enthusiastic view of capitalism
-see this as practical responses to difficult economic circumstances i.e recession of the late 20th century as well as ‘allies of individual freedom and a brake on state power’ (Nozick)
-NR argued that Burke was also a defender of free-trade and a laissez faire approach and that if the state withdrew from the economy, it could focus on its true purpose of order and security
Conservatism IS compatible with capitalism
-based on private property which is supported by conservatives
-capitalism generates hierarchy and inequality, which is seen as natural and ‘organic’
-New Right conservatives see capitalism as precondition of liberty and self fulfilment
Conservatism ISN’T compatible with capitalism
-threatens the traditional conservative goal of ‘one nation’ by generating tension + inequality within society
-advances competitive individualism (more of a liberal view) which threatens the communities valued by traditional conservatives
-capitalism + market forces are often volatile which goes against the stability + continuity liked by traditional conservatives
Traditional conservative view of the state: primacy of order
-state’s role is more preventative rather than promoting natural rights (liberalism) and progressive goals (socialism)—} job is to “prevent the bad rather than create the good” (Oakeshott)
-uphold Hobbes’ view that safety and security are simply impossible without authority, law and order — state is needed for this
-see the formal authority provided by the state as the precondition of society, liberty and individual rights: Burke explained “government is a contrivance of human wisdom to provide for human wants”
Traditional conservative view of the state: Limited hierarchy
-more comfortable with a state that is openly hierarchical and elitist
-Hobbes further argued that the state’s power has to be concentrated and ‘awesome’ in order to maintain peace + security
-Burke was keen on the notion of a ‘natural’ hierarchy or ‘ruling class’ while also exercising a paternalistic responsibility for society generally—} BUT must be limited by constitution such as the one in England post Glorious Revolution of 1688
-aristocratic rule should be further constrained by the existence of strong ‘little platoons’
-Oakeshott wanted ‘the limiting of Leviathan’ where the state is set to avoid a ‘nasty and brutish’ life but the role of many small communities is strong
Traditional conservative view of the state: Empiricism, experience and consensus
-Burke and Oakeshott believe the state shouldn’t be guided by ‘normative’ views about the kind of society which should exist: “a preference for what is known rather than envisaged” (Oakeshott)
-Oakeshott saw the state as a sturdy and spacious ‘vessel’ that rescues ‘passengers’ from the ‘fatal waters’ of anarchy
-Oakeshott echoed Burke’s view that change pursued by the state should be slow, cautious and respectful of the “love of the familiar”
-he thought the outcome of the state securing harmony and reconciling issues in society would be ‘one nation’
The New Right perspective on the state
-thought that Oakeshott’s views were too passive + accommodating—} instead wanted to be less empirical + pragmatic and more rigid to avoid being easily defeated
-used after 1975 by Thatcher claiming to be a ‘conviction politician not a consensus politician’ and by her govt’s readiness to confront various ‘enemies within’
-the NR is paradoxical: strengthening the state by shrinking the state
-Rand argued ‘the small state is the strong state’
-when the state is ‘overloaded’ by social + economic obligations, it’s less able to focus on its original functions like maintenance of order + security i.e Thatcherites asserted that the post-war social democratic consensus had ‘overloaded’ the UK state with welfare in the 70s
-in respect of economics and welfare, the aim should be to ‘roll back the
frontiers of the state’, via radical policies like privatisation and deregulation
-would allow the state to refocus and on areas such as law and order +security and defence
-outcome would be a state that was ‘leaner but fitter’
Traditional conservatism as an ideology
-the key thinkers span over a large time period showing how traditional conservatism is an ideology that has evolved in response to changing circumstances and challenges
-aims:
• ensure that change is orderly + non revolutionary
• ensure that private property is preserved
• ensure that tradition and custom are respected wherever possible
Response to civil war: a stress on authority
-for Hobbes, the chaos of the English Civil War showed the consequences of a society where the state and
authority have collapsed
-he wished to exalt reason and logic over faith and religion
-throughout the violence and bloodshed of war, he was anxious that there would be no freedom or progress without law and order—} because of this he gave conservatism the firm belief that the
primary purpose of government is the maintenance of peace and security
Response to the French Revolution: a stress on evolutionary change
-Burke foresaw the mayhem and violence that disfigured the French revolution of 1789, arguing that change should be evolutionary and always mindful of humanity’s imperfection
-he therefore came up with the notion of ‘change to conserve’, a recognition that change was inevitable, but
something that should be pursued slowly and carefully
-radical or revolutionary reform like the American Revolution of 1776 was
defended only if there was serious threats
1800s milestones
-Early 1800s, Catholic
Emancipation / abolition of
slavery:
• Tory PMs, Pitt, Peel and Canning
were conservative displaying
reverence for order, property,
tradition, organicism, empiricism,
paternalism
• But to preserve and prevent
revolutionary ideas they
reformed
• Canning supported emancipation
for Catholics and slaves
-Metropolitan Police (1829):
•introduced by Home Secretary Robert Peel in order to maintain social order
•reflected conservative values by emphasising stability and authority
-Great Reform Act (1832):
•exemplified conservative principles of gradual change and pragmatism by extending the electoral franchise to the middle classes—} preserving social stability and the existing political order
Response to French Revolution: a
stress on ‘one nation’
-industrialisation in the late 18th and 19th centuries led to forms of class-based inequality
-Disraeli and Bismarck emphasised ‘the nation’ - which was associated with revolution + rejection of
monarchial empires
-adjusted this into a conservative vision of ‘one nation’ —} the
various classes of society were part of one ‘national family’ with the richer classes having a paternalistic
role—} Disraeli warned “The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy”
-his govt acknowledged that capitalism produced dangerous levels of deprivation: reforms like the Factory Act 1874 and the Artisans’ Dwellings
Act 1875(restricting factory owners + landlords) were enacted, to deter enthusiasm for Marxist revolution
Response to democratic socialism: a stress on ‘the middle way’
-the Representation of the People Act 1918 extended the franchise to the young, working class—} posed a threat to the Conservatives
-adaptable nature of conservatism led to Macmillan’s ‘middle way’ between capitalism and socialism that would address economic inequalities, respecting property rights, and national identity
-1930s it was clear that conservatism was prepared to sanction further state intervention to stifle both socialism and
fascism—} between 1935-37, Conservative ministers sponsored Public Health, Housing and Factory Acts, all checked market forced in the name of ‘one nation’
-after 1945, conservatism embraced a welfare state + mixed economy via post war consensus
conservatism is the ‘politics of pragmatism’
-Burke’s attack on the French Revolution was also an attack on ‘abstract politics’ that were a poor substitute for political experience
-Burke and Oakeshott both praised on an empirical approach, based on ‘what is ‘rather than ‘what should be’
-New Right thinkers like Nozick insisted that their ideas were in fact a pragmatic response to serious social + economic problems, caused largely by the ‘failure’ of previous govts
conservatism isn’t the ‘politics of pragmatism’
-Oakeshott asserted that traditional conservatism wasn’t ‘philosophically empty’ but drew upon principles linked to aspects of human nature i.e ‘love of the familiar’
-New Right thinkers like Nozick sought to update the overly ideological approach in terms of state, society + economy and New Right politician Thatcher was proud to call herself a ‘conviction politician’
-Liberals like T.H Green argued that traditional conservatism was based on a certain view of reform that was itself ‘ideological’—} argument that cautious reform is always preferable is quite dogmatic
New Right conservatism: The New Right critique
-key thinkers: Rand and Nozick. NRC emerged in the 70s and was practised in the 80s by UK Conservatives and US Republicans
-The NR was a response to various political failures:
-failing economies – spiralling inflation, rising unemployment, and wastefully inefficient nationalised industries
-failing societies – involving ‘bloated’ welfare states, a dependency culture and irresponsible lifestyles, Rand suggested that societies had become ‘over-indulgent’, ‘over-reliant on state welfare’ and therefore ‘indifferent to notions of self-reliance and individual initiative’—} contributed to rising levels of public spending
-failing states – western democracies were becoming ungovernable, economic policies of both Conservative and Labour governments were obstructed in the 70s by trade union strikes, sparking Nozick’s fear that the UK was ‘ripe for Marxism’
New Right conservatism: The New Right solution
-what made the NR unique was its enthusiasm for elements of classical liberalism
-NR conservatism aims to combine 2 philosophies:
- traditional conservative principles, known as neo-conservatism
-classical liberal principles, known as neo-liberalism
New Right conservatism: Neo-conservatism
-echoed Hobbes’ view of reasserting the importance of order, authority and a strong, formidable state
-also wished to reassert the christian morality and social conservatism associated with Burke as well as the sense of national identity wanted by Disraeli
-expressed in Thatcher and Reagan govts of the 80s:
• tougher approach to law & order, more powers for the police
• a tougher approach to national defence, a less conciliatory approach to potential enemies
• less tolerant approach to immigration -> threat to national identity, issues like abortion, homosexuality and
the permissive society
• promotion of marriage and ‘traditional’ families, via tax, welfare benefits and education
New Right conservatism: Neo-liberalism
-Neo-liberal principles from Hayek were endorsed in the UK via think tanks like the Adam Smith institute + were echoed by the libertarianism and ‘minarchism’ of Nozick and Rand
-wished to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’ to ‘set people free’ from state interference, allow individual freedom,
shrink dependency culture + progress free market economy
-Thatcher and Reagan government:
- the reduction of personal taxation
- containment of government spending
- deregulation + privatisation of industries -> control of the
economy from the state to the private sector
Criticism of the New Right: contradictory
-Gilmour argued in his book ‘Dancing with Dogma’ that NR was a ‘series of contradictions’ because they mixed neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism
-i.e:
• neo-liberalism wanted to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’ such as Thatcher’s privatisation whereas neo-conservatism wanted to roll forward such as Thatcher’s restrictions on trade unions and local authorities
• neo-liberalism wished to advance individual liberty(Thatcher’s commitment to income tax cuts) and neo-conservatism wished to restrict it(Thatcher’s extension of police ‘stop and search powers’)
• neo-liberalism was relaxed about immigration (Nozick saw it as an expression of free markets and individual choice) whereas neo-conservatism were much more wary (Thatcher’s fear that immigration might ‘swamp’ British culture)
What was the argument that the components of NR are compatible?
-Gamble argued in ‘The Free Economy and the Strong State’(1988) that a ‘strong’ neo-conservative state may be enhanced by a ‘free’ neo-liberal economy—} NR govts can devote more funds to a ‘Hobbesian’ state (policing etc) due to lack of costs from state welfare
-‘free’ neo-liberal economy may be served by a ‘strong’ neo-conservative society—} fewer individuals are likely to require state welfare in social and moral conservatism(less ‘causalities’ of pessimistic societies’)
NR conservatism today: the US Libertarian party(2019)
-“we promote a political ideology, more culturally conservative than that of the Democrats.. more fiscally responsible than that of the Republicans”
- “free trade and minimal regulation of markets”
-“minimal taxation”
-“Maintenance of gun ownership rights”
Brexit is compatible with conservatism
-decision to leave with an attempt to restore national self-governance + great sense of ‘one nation’
-membership of the EU was never affirmed by public i.e no referendum on the Maastricht treaty, based on abstract goals like ‘political union’—} not supported by traditional conservatism
-as Burke argued, radical political action is sometimes required to maintain conservative principles i.e EU lacked institutional accountability so was at odds with representative nature of constitution—} Brexit was a pragmatic necessity
Brexit isn’t compatible with conservatism
-leaving was a ‘leap in the dark’ - radical change that goes against conservatism’s gradual, incremental change
-leaving the year was sometimes tight to faith in global laissez-faire capitalism (historically liberal form of economics that defined scepticism of many traditional conservatives)
-exacerbated social and cultural divisions and therefore threatened ‘one nation’
conservatism in the 21st century
-pessimism attributed to Hobbes has been seen in the anxiety about climate change and migration, the effects of the 2020 pandemic and the outbreak of Russia v Ukraine in 2022 —} state therefore felt obliged to place greater emphasis on order, safety and security i.e COVID laws
-neo-liberal approach has been criticised for advancing consumerism and globalisation of the economy —} critics suggest it would lead to an erosion of national + local identity
-trends of populism like Brexit may have been praise by Burke + Oakeshott for embodying a sense of pride in communities
-realignment (shift towards patriotism + upholding of traditional customs) may have led to the collapse of the red wall —} distain towards social liberalism
