I/O Flashcards
Five types of power
referent
legitimate
coercive
reward
expert
Reference power
role model
Legitimate power
based on existing power hierarchy/roles
Coercive
fear of a bad consequence
Donald Super theory of career development
self-concept
Kahneman & Tversky’s loss aversion model
people’s decisions are more affected by their desire to avoid losses than to make gains
What is the Zeigarnik effect?
Tendency to remember unfinished tasks more vividly than finished tasks
Consultee-centered administrative consultation
consultant works with employees to improve implementation of a program and addresses employees’ attitudes to how program is being conducted
Program-centered administrative consultation
consultant focuses on the program itself, eg how to develop a program
consultee-centered case consultation
consultant focuses on the consultee’s difficulties with patients
client-centered case consultation
consultant focuses on helping consultee with a particular patient
What are criterion measures
measures of behavior or performance, used as basis for performance appraisals
Halo bias
evaluation on one dimension affects how we rate person on other unrelated dimensions. Impacts different employees differently.
Central tendency (rater bias)
always uses mid range of rating scale
affects all employees in the same way
Leniency vs strictness bias
Leniency – always uses high end of scale
Strict – always use low end of scale
affect all employees the same way
Ways to reduce rater bias
use a relative or comparative rating scale
Design rating scale to incorporate critical incident
Behavioral anchored rating scale (BARS)
rater training in observational skills (rather than training on reducing bias)
frame of reference training (make sure all raters agree on what constitutes each aspect of job performance)
relative or comparative rating scale
comparing employees to each other, eg rating them in pairs, which of two employees is best/most effective
downsides of comparative rating scales
Aren’t used often
raters and ratees don’t like them
cumbersome to use esp when many employees to rate
relative measures don’t provide useful individual feedback
Behavioral anchored rating scale (BARS)
involves having raters take part in development,
likert scale anchored with critical incidents,
behaviorally based – help reduce rater bias
difficult to develop and hard to use in jobs that change often
What are predictors used for?
facilitate decisions relating to selection, promotion and training
Predictors and criterion should be developed from
job analysis
Types of job analysis
Interview employees and supervisors,
observe employees while they work,
have employees fill out questionnaire
output of job analysis
critical incident list
criterion measures for the job
Job evaluation
determines worth of job to determine benefits and salary of job, eg demands of job, previous experience and assigning a wage appropriate for demands
Needs assessment
determine whether training is needed to improve employee performance, outccomes tell you how
Includes job analysis, person analysis and organization analysis
Adverse impact
occurs when use of a predictor results in different selection promotion or discharge rates for groups protected by law, unfairly discriminates.
EEOC guidelines for determining if predictor is having adverse effect.
80% rule
80% rule
multiply how many from dominant group multiply by 80% and how many from minority group needs to be higher than this.
differential validity
a predictor has differential validity when validity coefficient is different for different groups of people (e.g., test more valid for males than females)
unfairness (predictor variables)
predictor is unfair when members of one group consistently score lower than members of another group but job performance is about the same. Validity coefficient is similar for both groups.
How to remedy unfairness (predictor variables)
Easier to remedy than differential validity – use different cutoff scores for different groups so selection rates for groups are similar.
Incremental validity
whether a new psychometric assessment will increase the predictive ability beyond that provided by an existing method of assessment.
Cognitive abilities test
highest validity coefficients across different jobs and different job settings – average reported coefficient is 0.5 or higher
Two common predictors used in organizations
cognitive abilities test
work or job sample
work or job sample
measures a person’s ability by having him or her perform a sample of the actual job.
limitations of job samples
show what a person can do but not what a person will do when actually on job.
Tends to be measures of maximal rather than typical performance.
Donald Super’s theory of career development
emphasizes self-concept
Ideal situation is for people to choose a job that allows them to express their self-concept.
Developmental aspect reflected in five life stages involving different career tasks
5 life stages (Super)
Growth
Exploration – to crystalize and then implement career choice consistent with self concept
Establishment – stabilization, consolidation, and advancement in chosen vocation
Maintenance
Disengagement
Career maturity (Super)
used to describe how a person has completed different stage tasks
Life career rainbow (Super)
connecting stages to 9 major life roles (student, parent, worker)
John Holland’s career development theory
matching an individual’s personality with the characteristics of the work environment.
6 personality types (RIASEC)
higher match leads to higher satisfaction, productivity
For Holland, personality/work match is better when
higher on one personality type and lower on other five than for person who receives moderate scores across multiple types
Similarities and differences in Holland’s personality types
RIASEC is arranged in a hexagon, and types closest to each other are more similar and types opposite each other on hexagon are most different
Holland’s personality types
RIASEC
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
Realistic personality type
carpenter, truck driver, pilot – requires manual and mechanical competencies and interactions with machines, tools, and objects; require skill, strength, and coordination, such as mechanic, drill press, or farmer
Investigative personality type
requires analytical, technical, and scientific competencies; prefers activities that involve thinking and organizing, such as research psychologists and journalists
Artistic personality type
prefer ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression, such as painter, musician, or writer
Social personality type
prefer activities that involve helping and developing others, such as social worker, teacher, and clinical psychologist
Enterprising personality type
requires good communication and persuasion skills and leadership abilities; enjoys opportunities to influence others and obtain power, such as lawyers and real estate agents
Conventional personality type
best suited for bank teller, accountant or typist – requires ability to meet precise standards of performance and adhere to clear rules and policies; prefers rule-regulated, orderly, unambiguous activities
Theories of employee motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Herzberg two factor theory / motivation/hygiene theory
Goal setting theory
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
5 hierarchical needs (Maslow)
-physiological
-security
-belongingess
-Esteem
-Self-actualization
research evidence against Maslow’s theory
People not motivated by one need at a time, and not in order predicted by maslow,
research has not confirmed five distinct needs (better to think of them in two or three categories)
Alderfer’s ERG Theory - 3 basic needs
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
Herzberg two factor theory
focus on motivation and satisfaction
Some job factors increase motivation and satisfaction while others only serve to reduce dissatisfaction
Motivation or job content factors
Hygiene or job context factors
Motivation or job content factors (Herzberg)
intrinsic characteristics of jobs, esp ability to provide workers with opportunities for recognition advancement and responsibility – autonomy, challenge
Hygiene or job context factors (Herzberg)
relate only to dissatisfaction.
Involve extrinsic factors; pay, work conditions and interpersonal relationships.
Not useful for enhancing motivation and satisfaction.
State of neutrality when it’s sufficient.
Satisfaction vs dissatisfaction according to Herzberg
two independent factors – can be both at same time.
Job enrichment
job can be redesigned to include motivation factors
Job enlargement
adding a wider variety of tasks to a job, reduce boredom, but won’t produce satisfied motivated workers
Goal setting theory
impact of performance goals on worker motivation,
Goal setting theory - considerations for effective goals
More effective when specific rather than broad or general
Moderately difficult or challenging – not so difficult to discourage workers, but not so easy to be perceived as demeaning or unchallenging
Most important – goals must be accepted by employees – must understand the goals, approve of them and be committed to exerting effort needed to achieve them. Participation can help increase goal acceptance, but not always necessary.
Equity theory
-motivation is affected by employee’s perception of his own input/output ratio compared to other employees
-motivation greatest when situation is equitable
Equity theory - input vs output
-input – amount of time work, effort exerted, experience brought to job
-output – what they get from job, eg pay, benefits and status
Two types of inequitable situations (equity theory)
Overpayment – worker puts in less and gets out more than other workers
Underpayment – putting in more and getting less; most negative and long lasting consequences, lower productivity, sabotage, absenteeism, turnover
Expectancy theory: employees motivation is result of three beliefs
Expectancy (that effort will improve performance)
Instrumentality (that good performance leads to rewards)
Valence (whether rewards are desirable)
Expectancy beliefs
belief that one’s effort will result in attainment of performance goals (e.g., working hard leads to successful performance)
Instrumentality beliefs
employees beliefs about relationship between performance and outcomes (more motivated when successful performance leads to certain outcomes)
Valence of outcomes (expectancy theory)
positive valence of outcome increases motivation
Interaction between three beliefs in expectancy theory
Motivation is a multiplicative function of these three beliefs – if any belief is =0, overall motivation also =0
Behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders (OSU 1950s study)
leaders can be described as initiating structure and consideration (discrete factors)
Initiating structure (leadership; OSU)
degree leaders are task-oriented, concerned with getting job done, goal setting following rules and making roles explicit
Consideration (leadership; OSU)
degree to which they are person oriented, concerned with establishing and matinining good relationships with their subordinates
Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership
Leadership effectiveness is result of interaction between leaders style and favorableness of situations
Leader style (Fiedler)
score on least preferred coworker (LPC)
high LPC evaluates LPC in favorable ways, is person oriented and concerned with maintaining good relationships with subordinate.
Low LPC is task-oriented and more concerned with achieving work goals
Fiedler assumes leadership style is fixed, will always be the style you are
Favorableness of situation (Fiedler)
amount of control a leader has.
Affected by task structure, leaders relationship with subordinates and leaders power over subordinates
(favorableness=degree of leaders influence, e.g., situational control)
relationship between leader style and favorableness (Fiedler)
Curvilinear
Low LPC leaders more effective in extreme situations – when situation is very favorable or unfavorable
High LPC leaders more effective in moderately favorable situation
Hersey and Blanchards situational leadership model / 4 styles
different combinations of task and relationship orientation
Telling style – high in task orientation low relationship; best for employees low in ability and willingness
Selling – high task, high relationship; best emp low in ability high willingness/motivation
Participating – low task, high relationship
Delegating style – low task, low relationship
To maximize employee performance and satisfaction, leadership style must match ____ (Hersey and Blanchards)
employee’s maturity level, determined by employees ability level and willingness to accept responsibility
Transformational leadership
Characterized by ability to recognize need for change, communicate need for change to followers, then effectively make the change by empowering followers and appealing to followers values and ideals
Transformational leaders use
Framing – giving meaning and purpose to what they are requesting followers to do
Transactional leaders
Opposite of transformational leaders
more concerned with maintain status quo and rely on rewards and punishments to motivate employees
Models of Individual decision-making in organizations
rational economic
bounded rationality model
Rational economic decision-making model
leaders always rational and consider all possible alternatives to make best decision
Bounded rationality/administrative decision-making model
usually time and resource constraints on decision making that limit decision makers rationality.
Decision makers only consider alternatives until they find one that meets minimal standards of acceptability –
Satisficing (Herbert Simon) – chooses solution that is good enough rather than optimal
Negative effects of group decision making
Group think
Group polarization
Risky shift
(more research support for polarization vs risky shift)
Factors that increase group think
Insulation from outsiders,
highly directive leader,
complex or dynamic environment.
Group think
suspension of critical thinking that occurs in highly cohesive groups
Mind guard (group decision making)
In group think, strives to maintain groups cohesiveness by protecting group from dissenting views
How to reduce risk of group think
leader not expressing their own opinion too early in the decision proves,
assigning group members to be devils advocate,
ensuring all alternative solutions to problems are thoroughly considered before decision is made
Group polarization
group tends to make riskier or more conservative decisions than individual members would make alone
Risky shift phenomenon
group consistently makes riskier decisions than would as individuals
Zeigarnik effect
people are more likely to remember uncompleted tasks than completed ones
Research on crowding shows
Men are more affected by crowding than women
Crowding increases arousal for both positive and negative emotions
Affects of alternative work schedules (flexible hours, 4 day work week)
Affect morale more than performance (little impact on performances, big impact on morale)
What is the Position Analysis Questionnaire used to measure?
a structured worker-oriented job analysis questionnaire that addresses six categories of work activity: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other people, job context, and other characteristics. Because these activities are general, the PAQ can be used for a variety of jobs, and it allows an employer to compare activities across different jobs.
Purpose of critical incident technique
identify extreme behaviors (very successful and very unsuccessful behaviors);
can be useful for identifying anchors on BARS
What are comparable worth procedures used for?
the principle that workers performing different jobs that require the same skills and responsibilities or that are of comparable value to the employer should be paid the same and has been applied primarily to the gender gap in wages.
used to establish pay equity across different jobs that require similar abilities but have traditionally been performed by men or by women.
